Objects – teachanyclass.org

Introduction

In 1826, the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II made a major decision. He had been working to modernise his empire, which by this time was being called 'the sick man of Europe' — falling behind the rapidly developing European powers in technology, military strength, and political organisation. He had abolished the Janissaries, the empire's old elite military corps. He was reshaping the army on European lines. Now he turned to clothing. He decreed that all soldiers and officials must wear a new kind of headgear: the fez, a tall cylindrical hat of red felt with a black silk tassel. The fez was new but not entirely new. It was based on traditional headgear from the Moroccan city of Fez, where dyers had been making red felt caps for centuries. The new Ottoman version was somewhat taller and more uniformly shaped. It was meant to look modern (no turbans, which were associated with the old Ottoman regime) while still being distinctively Ottoman (no European hats). Within a generation, the fez had become the standard hat across most of the Ottoman Empire. In Egypt — which was officially Ottoman territory but governed by the Muhammad Ali dynasty — it was called the tarboush. In Greece, where it had spread before independence, it was called the fesi. Across the Balkans, the Levant, North Africa, and parts of South Asia, the hat became the most recognisable symbol of the Ottoman world. Then, in 1925, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk — the founder of modern Turkey — banned the fez. He was modernising Turkey on European lines and saw the fez as a symbol of the old Ottoman past. Wearing one in Turkey could be punished with imprisonment. Some other Middle Eastern countries followed suit, discouraging the fez as old-fashioned. Egypt's King Farouk was overthrown in 1952; the new republican government discouraged the tarboush as too associated with the old monarchy. By the late 20th century, the fez had become a curiosity. It is still worn in Egypt today by older men, by some hotel doormen and waiters in traditional restaurants, and at certain festivals. It is worn in Morocco and parts of the Balkans. It has had unusual second lives in the West — Shriners (an American fraternal organisation) wear it as part of their regalia, certain religious figures wear it, comedians wear it. The hat that was once the symbol of an empire is now a piece of contested heritage. This lesson asks how the tarboush was made, why it was banned, and what its strange journey teaches us about how clothing carries political meaning.

The object

Origin: The fez was originally associated with the Moroccan city of Fez (the modern fez is named after the city). The specifically tall, cylindrical, deep red form became dominant in the Ottoman Empire after Sultan Mahmud II made it standard for soldiers and officials in 1826. In Egypt and the Levant, the same hat is called tarboush.
Period: The modern form has been worn from about 1826 to today. Its peak popularity was the late 1800s and early 1900s. It was banned in Turkey in 1925 and discouraged in some other countries. It continues to be worn in Egypt, Morocco, parts of the Balkans, and some Western religious and fraternal contexts.
Made of: Felt — wool that has been wet, pressed, and beaten until the fibres lock into a thick fabric. The felt is dyed deep red (originally with kermes dye, later with cochineal, then with chemical dyes). A black silk tassel is attached at the centre of the top.
Size: A typical tarboush is 15 to 20 cm tall and about 16 cm in diameter at the brim. It is shaped like a truncated cone — slightly narrower at the top than at the brim. The tassel hangs from the centre of the top.
Number of objects: Many millions have been made over the past two centuries. Many are still in active daily use across the Ottoman successor states. Major museum collections include the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul, the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, and many others.
Where it is now: Worn today in Egypt (mainly by older men, hotel doormen, and at traditional events), Morocco, parts of the Balkans, and by Shriners (an American fraternal organisation) and certain religious figures. Banned in Turkey since 1925.

Before you teach this — reflect

Questions for you

The tarboush has had a complicated history — promoted, banned, discouraged, revived. How will you teach this without making the lesson into Ottoman or Turkish politics?
Some students may know the fez only from comedy or American Shriners. How will you separate the real historical hat from its later cultural uses?
The Middle East and North Africa are real modern places. How will you keep this lesson grounded in current reality?

Common student difficulties — tick any you have noticed

My students may not know that the tarboush and the fez are the same hat with different regional names — tarboush in Egypt and the Levant, fez in Turkey and elsewhere.
My students may not know that the modern form was promoted by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of Ottoman modernisation.
My students may not know that the fez was banned in Turkey by Atatürk in 1925.
My students may not know that the hat continues to be worn in Egypt, Morocco, and parts of the Balkans today.
My students may have seen Shriners (American fraternal organisation) wearing fezzes and may not know the connection to the original Middle Eastern hat.
My students may need help with the difference between 'banned in one country' and 'no longer used' — the tarboush was banned in Turkey but continues elsewhere.

Discovery sequence

1

In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire made a momentous decision. He destroyed the Janissaries — his army's elite corps, who had become a political problem — in what historians call the Auspicious Incident. He then began rebuilding the Ottoman military on modern European lines. Part of the rebuilding was new uniforms. Mahmud wanted his new soldiers to look modern and disciplined, distinct from the old Ottoman style. But he also wanted them to look distinctively Ottoman, not just European. He chose the fez — a tall cylindrical red hat with a black tassel, based on traditional caps from the Moroccan city of Fez. The choice was deliberate. The fez was simple, uniform, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. It looked modern compared to the old turbans of Ottoman officials. It was distinctly not a European top hat. It was Mediterranean and Islamic in feel without being identifiably any particular pre-existing style. It was perfect for an empire trying to modernise without becoming European. Within a generation, the fez had spread far beyond the military. Officials wore it. Wealthy merchants wore it. Soldiers wore it. By the 1860s, it was the standard hat for adult men across most of the Ottoman Empire — from the Balkans to Egypt to Iraq. Why might one government make a hat compulsory?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

Because clothing is never just clothing. It is also identity, status, and belonging. By making the fez compulsory for soldiers and officials, Mahmud was creating a visible symbol of his new modernised empire. Citizens of the empire could see, in any official they encountered, that the empire had changed. The same kind of state-mandated clothing has happened many times throughout history. The Manchu queue (long braided ponytail) was forced on Chinese men by the Qing dynasty in the 1640s as a symbol of submission. Russian Tsar Peter the Great forced his nobles to shave their beards in 1698 as part of westernisation. The French Revolution made certain clothing items politically charged (the red Phrygian cap as a symbol of liberty). Each was an attempt to use clothing to shape identity. The Ottoman fez was one of these attempts. It mostly worked. The fez became deeply associated with Ottoman identity within a few decades. It was a visible reminder, on every adult head, that this was the new Ottoman world. Students should see that 'official clothing' is a real political tool, used by governments throughout history to shape how people see themselves and each other.

2

Making a tarboush is a careful craft. The first stage is preparing the felt — wool fibres that have been wet, pressed, and beaten until they lock together into a thick cloth. Felt-making is one of the oldest textile crafts in the world, used for many things across Eurasia for thousands of years. The felt is dyed deep red. Originally, the dye was kermes — a red dye made from a small insect that lives on certain oak trees in the Mediterranean. Kermes was expensive but produced an excellent red. Later, when European traders brought back cochineal (a similar red dye made from insects in the Americas), this became the standard. In modern tarboush production, chemical dyes are usually used. The felt is shaped over a wooden form into the truncated-cone shape. The shape is fixed by steaming and pressing. The brim is finished. A black silk tassel is attached at the centre of the top. A traditional tarboush is one whole piece — no seams, no joins, just shaped felt. A skilled maker can produce one in about a day. The best tarboushes were made in specific cities — Tunis, Cairo, Strakonice in Bohemia (which became a major European supplier), and especially Vienna, where Viennese felt-making was prized. Why might making one specific hat become its own industry?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

Because demand was enormous. Millions of fezzes were needed each year for the soldiers and civilian populations of the Ottoman world. The economics of fez-making became significant. Cities competed to be the major supplier. Vienna in the late 1800s had several factories making fezzes specifically for export to the Ottoman Empire — a Habsburg city making the symbolic hat of the Ottoman Empire that was sometimes at war with the Habsburgs. The international supply chains were complicated. There is also a quality dimension. The best fezzes were prized; cheap fezzes were sniffed at. A wealthy Egyptian official might own several tarboushes of different qualities for different occasions. The makers competed on the precision of the shape, the depth of the red, the smoothness of the felt. Some makers became famous. The same kind of specialisation existed in many craft industries. Italian silk, Indian cotton, Chinese porcelain — all were major industries with prized makers. The tarboush was one of these. Students should see that 'national symbols' are also economic objects. Behind every important piece of clothing is an industry making it. The tarboush industry was substantial, international, and competitive.

3

In 1922, the Ottoman Empire formally ended. Out of its ruins emerged several new states — Turkey, the Arab states under European mandate, eventually the modern Middle East. The new Turkey was led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a former Ottoman general who had won Turkey's war of independence (1919-1923) against Greek and Allied invasion. Atatürk wanted to modernise Turkey on European lines. He believed Turkey's future required a clean break with the Ottoman past. He moved the capital from Istanbul to Ankara. He replaced Arabic script with the Latin alphabet for writing Turkish. He promoted European-style legal codes. He encouraged European clothing. In 1925, he passed the Hat Law. The law banned the fez. Wearing one in Turkey was now a punishable offence. Men were required to wear European-style hats — fedoras, bowlers, brimmed hats. The change was enforced by police. The Hat Law was deeply controversial. Some Turks resisted. There were small uprisings; some men were executed for refusing to switch hats. But the law was enforced for years, and the fez largely disappeared from Turkey. Meanwhile, in other Middle Eastern countries — Egypt, Iraq, the Levant — the tarboush continued to be worn. But it was increasingly seen as old-fashioned, associated with the old Ottoman or monarchical regimes. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 overthrew King Farouk, the new republican government discouraged the tarboush as too royal. Why might a government ban a hat?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

Because the hat was a symbol. Atatürk understood that the fez stood for the old Ottoman world he wanted to leave behind. As long as Turkish men wore fezzes, they looked like Ottomans, identified as Ottomans, were Ottomans in their own minds. By banning the fez and requiring European hats, Atatürk was forcing a visible break with the past. Whether this was the right way to modernise is a real ongoing debate in Turkey to this day. Some Turks see Atatürk as the saviour of modern Turkey. Others see his clothing reforms as authoritarian and unnecessary. The point is that he understood clothing as politics. He was right that the fez carried meaning. He was right that changing what people wore would change how they thought of themselves. The same logic has been applied many times — the headscarf debates in modern France and Iran, the changing of military uniforms after revolutions, the requirement that schoolchildren wear specific clothing. Clothing is power, and governments throughout history have used it. Students should see that the Hat Law of 1925 was not eccentric — it was an example of a recurring pattern of state-mandated clothing change. The fez was a symbol; banning it was an attempt to change what Turks identified with.

4

Today, the tarboush has had a strange afterlife. In Egypt, it is still worn — but mainly by older men in traditional contexts, by some hotel doormen and waiters at heritage restaurants, and at certain religious or cultural events. In Cairo's heritage cafés, the tarboush is part of the deliberately old-fashioned atmosphere. In Morocco, the fez (called fes there) is still worn in some traditional contexts. In Greece, the village priests of certain Eastern Orthodox traditions wear a soft black version. In Bosnia and the wider Balkans, some elderly Muslim men still wear it. The fez has also had unusual lives in the West. The Shriners — an American fraternal organisation, part of Freemasonry — wear elaborate red fezzes as part of their ceremonial regalia. They picked up the fez in the late 1800s when American travellers became fascinated with Middle Eastern culture. Today, you can see Shriners wearing fezzes at parades and charity events across the United States. The connection to the original Middle Eastern hat is now mostly forgotten. Some Black Muslim Americans wear fezzes as a sign of Islamic identity (the Moorish Science Temple, the Nation of Islam, and others). British comedian Tommy Cooper wore a fez as part of his comedy persona in the 1960s and 1970s, making it a recognisable visual joke for British audiences. The tarboush is also experiencing a small revival in some places. Egyptian fashion designers have begun including it in modern collections. Some Egyptian young men have started wearing it as a statement of cultural pride. Tunisian and Moroccan craftsmakers continue to make excellent fezzes for the international market. What is the position of the tarboush today?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

Mixed. The tarboush is no longer the standard daily hat anywhere. But it is far from gone. It survives in specific traditional contexts, in fraternal regalia, in religious dress, in revival fashion. The pattern is similar to many traditional items of clothing that have been displaced by modernisation but not destroyed. The Scottish kilt is no longer daily wear but is worn at weddings and Highland Games. The Japanese kimono is mainly worn now at ceremonial occasions. The Indian dhoti has been displaced by trousers but continues for specific events. Each of these traditional items has its own continued life — diminished from peak use but real. The tarboush is one of these. It will probably continue to exist in this diminished form indefinitely — too historically meaningful to disappear entirely, too associated with old eras to come back as daily wear. Students should see that 'clothing change' is rarely complete. Old items often survive in specific niches, even when they have been actively suppressed. The tarboush survived even Atatürk's ban — outside Turkey. End the discovery here. The hat is still being made. The tassel is still being attached. The next tarboush is being prepared.

What this object teaches

The tarboush — also called fez — is a tall cylindrical hat of deep red felt with a black silk tassel. Although the name comes from the Moroccan city of Fez, the modern form was promoted by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of his modernisation reforms. He made it standard for soldiers and officials. Within a generation, it had become the standard adult male hat across the Ottoman Empire — from the Balkans to Egypt to Iraq. Different regions called it different names: fez in Turkey, tarboush in Egypt and the Levant, fesi in Greece. Major fez-making industries developed in cities like Tunis, Cairo, Vienna, and Strakonice in Bohemia. In 1925, the new Turkish republic under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk banned the fez as part of his westernising reforms. Wearing one in Turkey became a punishable offence. The hat largely disappeared from Turkey but continued in other Ottoman successor states. After Egypt's 1952 revolution overthrew King Farouk, the tarboush was discouraged there too as a symbol of the old monarchy. Today, the tarboush continues to be worn in Egypt (mainly by older men and in traditional contexts), Morocco, parts of the Balkans, by Shriners (an American fraternal organisation), and by some religious and fashion figures. It has had a strange afterlife — banned, mocked, revived, repurposed, but never quite extinguished.

Date	Event	What changed
Centuries	Red felt caps made in Fez, Morocco	The basic technology and form develop in North Africa
1826	Sultan Mahmud II makes the fez compulsory for Ottoman soldiers and officials	The hat becomes a state-promoted symbol of the modernising empire
Late 1800s	Peak fez popularity across the Ottoman world	The hat is the most recognisable adult male headwear from the Balkans to Egypt
1922	End of the Ottoman Empire	Successor states emerge with different attitudes to Ottoman heritage
1925	Atatürk's Hat Law bans the fez in Turkey	Major rupture; the hat largely disappears from Turkish daily life
1952	Egyptian Revolution overthrows King Farouk	The new Egyptian republic discourages the tarboush as too royal
Today	The tarboush continues in specific contexts	Worn by older men in Egypt, by Shriners in the US, in heritage and fashion contexts

Key words

Tarboush

The Egyptian and Levantine name for the tall cylindrical red felt hat with black tassel. Same hat as the fez. The name comes from Persian or Turkish.

Example: In a traditional Cairo café, the tarboush might be worn by older male customers, the manager, and the staff. In modern offices, it is rarely seen.

Fez

The Turkish and international name for the same hat. Named after the Moroccan city of Fez, where similar caps had been made for centuries before the modern form was developed.

Example: In Turkey, the fez was the standard adult male hat from 1826 until 1925, when Atatürk banned it. Some elderly Turkish men remembered the change for the rest of their lives.

Mahmud II

Ottoman Sultan from 1808 to 1839. Modernised the empire's military, administration, and clothing. In 1826, he abolished the Janissaries and made the fez compulsory for soldiers and officials.

Example: Mahmud II's reforms were controversial in their time but laid the groundwork for the further reforms of the Tanzimat era. His clothing reform created the modern Ottoman fez.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Founder of modern Turkey. Led the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) and became the first president of the Republic of Turkey. Implemented sweeping reforms to modernise Turkey on European lines, including the 1925 ban on the fez.

Example: Atatürk's surname means 'Father of the Turks'. The Hat Law of 1925 was one of his many reforms — others included the alphabet change, calendar change, and legal code change. The fez ban was symbolic of the wider westernising programme.

Felt

A thick non-woven fabric made from wool fibres that have been wet, pressed, and beaten until they lock together. One of the oldest textile materials in the world. Used for the tarboush and many other items.

Example: Making felt for a tarboush starts with carefully selected wool, often from specific sheep. The wool is laid out in layers, soaked, and beaten until it forms one continuous thick fabric ready for shaping.

Shriners

An American fraternal organisation, part of the wider Freemasonry tradition. Adopted the fez as part of their ceremonial regalia in the late 1800s, when American Orientalist fascination with the Middle East was at its peak. Still wear elaborate red fezzes today.

Example: The Shriners run major children's hospitals across North America and are best known publicly for their parades, where members wear red fezzes and ride small motorised vehicles. The connection to the original Middle Eastern hat is now mostly forgotten.

Use this in other subjects

Geography: On a map of the world, mark the regions where the tarboush/fez was once standard wear: the Ottoman Empire (Turkey, Balkans, Levant, Egypt, North Africa), and where it spread to (Morocco, Greece, parts of South Asia). Discuss how the geography of the Ottoman Empire shaped the spread of one piece of clothing.
History: Build a class timeline: traditional Moroccan red caps (centuries), Mahmud II makes fez compulsory (1826), peak Ottoman use (late 1800s), end of Ottoman Empire (1922), Atatürk's Hat Law (1925), Egyptian Revolution (1952), modern revival fashion (recent decades). The story spans 200 years of Middle Eastern history.
Citizenship: Hold a class discussion: 'Should governments tell people what to wear?' Use the tarboush as one starting point. Other examples include school uniform laws, religious dress requirements, military uniforms, and the various headscarf debates in modern democratic states. Strong answers will see arguments on multiple sides.
Art: Look at images of historical figures wearing the tarboush — Egyptian kings, Ottoman sultans, intellectuals, ordinary citizens. Note how the same hat appears across different ranks and identities. Each student designs a hat that they think could be a national symbol of their country, with reasons for their choices.
Ethics: Atatürk's Hat Law was enforced with police and courts. Some men were executed for refusing to change hats. Discuss the ethics of state-enforced clothing change. Was the law authoritarian, necessary modernisation, or both? Strong answers will see real complexity. The same questions arise for many other state-mandated clothing changes throughout history.
Language: The same hat is called by many names in different languages: fez (Turkish), tarboush (Arabic), fesi (Greek), fes (Bosnian, Albanian), tarbush (Romanian), and many others. Discuss how the same object can be named differently in different languages and how the names sometimes carry their own histories.

Common misconceptions

Wrong

The tarboush and the fez are different hats.

Right

They are the same hat with different regional names. Fez is the Turkish and international name; tarboush is the Egyptian and Levantine name; fesi is Greek; fes is Bosnian and Albanian. Many other regional names exist.

Why

Knowing they are the same hat helps students understand that this was a single Ottoman-wide phenomenon, not many separate traditions.

Wrong

The fez is a very old traditional hat.

Right

While red felt caps from Fez, Morocco, are old, the specific tall cylindrical form became dominant only after Sultan Mahmud II promoted it in 1826. The 'traditional' fez is therefore less than 200 years old in its modern form.

Why

This challenges the assumption that 'traditional' means 'ancient'. Many traditional items are surprisingly recent.

Wrong

The fez is a religious item.

Right

The fez was promoted by Ottoman Muslim governments and was widely worn by Muslims, but it was not specifically religious. Greeks, Christians of the Levant, and others wore it too. It was an Ottoman imperial item, not an Islamic religious one.

Why

The fez is sometimes confused with religious headcoverings. It is actually a state-promoted civic symbol that became associated with Ottoman cultural identity rather than with any specific religion.

Wrong

The fez disappeared after Atatürk's ban.

Right

It largely disappeared from Turkey but continued to be worn in Egypt, Morocco, the Balkans, and elsewhere. It has had unusual second lives in the West (Shriners, comedy) and is experiencing small revivals today. The hat is diminished but not gone.

Why

'Disappeared' is a comfortable simple story. The reality is more complex — clothing changes are rarely complete.

Teaching this with care

Treat the tarboush with the historical seriousness it deserves. The hat is a real piece of Middle Eastern heritage with a complicated political history. Use both names — tarboush (Egyptian and Levantine) and fez (Turkish and international) — to help students see that this is a single phenomenon with regional variations. Pronounce 'tarboush' as roughly 'tar-BOOSH'; 'fez' as 'fez'. Be careful with the modernisation framing. Atatürk's reforms are still controversial in Turkey. Some Turks see him as a hero who saved Turkey; others see him as an authoritarian who suppressed traditional culture. The lesson should mention the ban factually without taking strong sides. Students from Turkey or with Turkish heritage may have strong family views; respect them. Be careful with religious framings. The fez was not specifically Islamic — Greek Christians, Levantine Christians, and others wore it. Avoid presenting the fez as 'Muslim dress' or its banning as 'anti-Muslim'; both framings oversimplify. Be aware that the fez has had complicated second lives. Some Black Muslim American organisations (Moorish Science Temple, Nation of Islam) wear it as a sign of Islamic identity; this is real and respectful. The Shriners' use is mostly disconnected from its origins; this is also real but different in character. The British comedian Tommy Cooper used it for comedy; this can be mentioned briefly without dwelling. Avoid the lazy 'exotic Orient' framing. The tarboush is from a real place with a real history, not vague exotic mystery. Egypt is a real modern country with about 110 million people; some students may have Egyptian heritage. Be respectful of contemporary Egypt. Finally, end the lesson on the present. The tarboush is still worn somewhere right now. The story continues.

Check what students have understood

Answer each question in one or two sentences. Use what you have learned about the tarboush.

What is the tarboush, and what is its other name?

The tarboush is a tall cylindrical hat of deep red felt with a black silk tassel. It is also called the fez (Turkish and international name); both names refer to the same hat, with regional differences.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that mentions both names and describes the basic appearance of the hat.
How did the tarboush become the standard hat of the Ottoman world?

In 1826, Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II made the fez compulsory for all soldiers and officials as part of his modernisation reforms. Within a generation, it had spread far beyond the military to become the standard adult male hat across the Ottoman Empire — from the Balkans to Egypt to Iraq.

Marking note: Strong answers will mention both Mahmud II and 1826, and the spread beyond the military.
Why did Atatürk ban the fez in Turkey in 1925?

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, was modernising Turkey on European lines and saw the fez as a symbol of the old Ottoman past that he wanted to break with. The Hat Law of 1925 banned the fez and required European-style hats. The change was enforced by police.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that mentions the modernisation motivation and the 1925 ban.
Where is the tarboush still worn today?

In Egypt (mainly by older men, hotel doormen, and at traditional events), Morocco, parts of the Balkans, by Shriners (an American fraternal organisation), and by some religious and fashion figures. The hat is diminished but not gone.

Marking note: Strong answers will mention multiple locations or contexts where the hat continues.
What does the tarboush story teach us about clothing and politics?

That governments throughout history have used clothing to shape identity. The Ottomans promoted the fez in 1826 to create a symbol of their modernising empire. The Turkish republic banned it in 1925 to break with the Ottoman past. The same logic has been applied many times: clothing is power, and what people wear shapes how they think of themselves and each other.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that recognises both the political nature of clothing decisions and gives at least one example.

Discuss together

These questions have no single right answer. Talk in pairs or small groups, then share your ideas with the class.

In your country, are there clothing items that have political meaning today?

This is a contemporary question. Students may suggest: religious headcoverings (hijab, kippah, turban), national symbols (lapel pins, specific colours), school uniforms, military dress, hoodies and political associations. The deeper point is that 'clothing as politics' is not just historical. It happens around us every day. The tarboush is one specific case of a universal pattern.
Atatürk's Hat Law was enforced with police and even executions. Are there limits to how far a government should go to change what people wear?

This is an ethical question. Some students will say governments should never enforce clothing; others will see specific cases where it might be justified (military uniforms, hospital protective gear, school uniforms). Strong answers will see that the question is not just yes-or-no but about which clothing decisions are appropriate for state regulation. The Hat Law is generally now seen as an extreme case — the principle of modernisation may have been right but the enforcement was harsh. End by saying that this kind of question is being asked today in many places about many different clothing items.
The Shriners adopted the fez in the late 1800s, when American interest in the Middle East was high. They still wear it today, mostly disconnected from its origins. Is this respectful, neutral, or appropriative?

This connects to the cultural appropriation thread that has run through several lessons. Strong answers will see that the Shriners' use is an interesting case — neither directly disrespectful (no false claims, used in fraternal context) nor fully respectful (mostly disconnected from origins, used in ways that can look like cultural cosplay). The same questions apply to many other Western adoptions of Middle Eastern items. End by saying that the right answer probably involves: knowing the origins, being honest about why something is being used, and respecting the originating community.

Teaching sequence

THE HOOK (5 min)

Without saying anything about the lesson, ask: 'Could a hat be banned by law?' Take guesses. Then say: 'Yes — Turkey banned the fez in 1925, and people went to prison for wearing one. We are going to find out why.'
INTRODUCE THE OBJECT (10 min)

Describe the tarboush/fez: a tall cylindrical hat of deep red felt with a black tassel, promoted by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of modernisation reforms. Spread across the Ottoman world for nearly a century. Banned in Turkey by Atatürk in 1925. Still worn today in some places. Pause and ask: 'How might one specific hat carry so much political meaning?' Listen to answers.
THE OTTOMAN ERA (15 min)

On the board, walk through how the fez spread. Mahmud II makes it compulsory in 1826. Ottoman officials, soldiers, then civilians adopt it. Different regions develop different names — fez in Turkey, tarboush in Egypt, fesi in Greece. By the late 1800s, it is the standard adult male hat from the Balkans to Egypt. Discuss: how does a hat go from new to traditional in a few decades?
THE BAN AND AFTER (10 min)

Tell the story of Atatürk's 1925 Hat Law. Banned in Turkey. Enforced harshly. Continued in Egypt and elsewhere. Discouraged in Egypt after 1952 too. Today it survives in specific contexts — Egyptian heritage cafés, Shriners parades, Moroccan tradition, religious dress. Ask: what does the long afterlife of the tarboush teach us?
CLOSING (5 min)

Ask: 'What does the tarboush teach us about how clothing carries political meaning?' Take a few honest answers. End by saying: 'For nearly 200 years, this one specific hat has been promoted, mocked, banned, revived, and adopted. It started as a sign of Ottoman modernisation. It became a sign of the Ottoman past that some wanted to leave behind. It is now a sign of heritage in some places and curious cultural memory in others. The hat is still being made. The story continues.'

Classroom materials

State Clothing

Instructions: On the board, list five examples of state-mandated or state-affected clothing throughout history: Atatürk's Hat Law (1925), school uniforms in many countries, military uniforms everywhere, the Manchu queue (Qing China, 1640s), modern hijab debates. In small groups, students discuss what these have in common. Discuss: governments have always used clothing as a tool. The tarboush is one example of a wider pattern.

Example: In Mr Hassan's class, students discussed how all five examples involved state authority shaping clothing for political reasons. The teacher said: 'You have just identified one of the recurring features of state power throughout history. The tarboush case was unusual in its specifics — a hat ban with executions for refusal — but not in its underlying logic. States and clothing are linked everywhere.'

Three Names, One Hat

Instructions: On the board, write five names for the same hat: fez (Turkey), tarboush (Egypt), fesi (Greece), fes (Bosnia), tarbush (Romania). Each student picks one name and writes a short paragraph on what they imagine that name has meant in that country across the past 200 years. Display the paragraphs and discuss.

Example: In Mrs Soliman's class, students wrote about the tarboush in Egypt as the hat of grandfathers, the fes in Bosnia as a sign of Muslim identity, the fez in Turkey as the banned past. The teacher said: 'You have just understood something important. The same physical object can carry very different meanings in different places. The hat in Egypt today is not the same as the hat in Turkey today, even though it is the same shape. Meaning lives in context.'

What Symbols Have Travelled

Instructions: In small groups, students discuss: 'What other clothing or accessory items have travelled from one culture to another, taking on different meanings along the way?' Examples might include: the keffiyeh (originally Palestinian/Arabian, now also worn in Western political contexts), the henley shirt, the necktie, jeans. Each group shares one example. Discuss: clothing crosses cultural boundaries all the time. The tarboush is one specific case.

Example: In one class, students discussed the keffiyeh and how its meaning has shifted across decades and cultures. The teacher said: 'You have just thought about how clothing meanings travel. The tarboush did this for nearly 200 years. The Shriners' use is an extreme case of meaning-shift. Many other cases happen continuously. Knowing the original source is the first step in using clothing items thoughtfully.'

Where to go next

Try a lesson on the Maasai shuka and beadwork for another distinctive clothing item with political and cultural meaning.
Try a lesson on the Vietnamese ao dai for another national clothing tradition shaped by specific historical moments.
Try a lesson on the kente cloth for another textile tradition with global travel and meaning shifts.
Connect this lesson to history class with a longer project on the Ottoman Empire and its modern successors. The fez is one window into a much larger story.
Connect this lesson to citizenship class with a longer discussion of state-mandated clothing — uniform laws, religious dress regulations, school dress codes.
Connect this lesson to art class with a longer project on hats as cultural objects. Many cultures have specific hats with deep meaning — the Scottish bonnet, the Chinese mianliu (mortarboard ancestor), the Russian ushanka, the Mexican sombrero, and many others.

Key takeaways

The tarboush — also called fez — is a tall cylindrical hat of deep red felt with a black silk tassel. The same hat has different names in different regions: fez (Turkish, international), tarboush (Egyptian, Levantine), fesi (Greek), fes (Bosnian, Albanian).
The modern form was promoted by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of his modernisation reforms. He made it compulsory for soldiers and officials. Within a generation, it had become the standard adult male hat across the Ottoman Empire.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, banned the fez in Turkey in 1925 (the Hat Law) as part of his westernising reforms. Wearing one became a punishable offence. The hat largely disappeared from Turkey.
After Egypt's 1952 revolution overthrew King Farouk, the new republican government discouraged the tarboush as a symbol of the old monarchy. The hat became less common in daily Egyptian life.
Today, the tarboush is still worn in Egypt (mainly by older men and at traditional events), Morocco, parts of the Balkans, by Shriners (an American fraternal organisation), and by some religious and fashion figures.
The tarboush story teaches us that clothing carries political meaning. Governments have used clothing throughout history to shape identity — promoting some items, banning others. The fez was promoted in 1826 and banned in 1925; both decisions were attempts to use clothing as power.

Sources

The Modernisation of Ottoman Clothing — Donald Quataert (1997) [academic]
Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey — Andrew Mango (1999) [academic]
How the fez became Egyptian — BBC News Egypt (2018) [news]
The Hat Law of 1925 — Turkish Historical Society (2024) [institution]
Topkapı Palace Museum: Ottoman Clothing — Topkapı Palace Museum (2024) [museum]

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The Tarboush: A Hat That Was Made and Then Banned

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