All Object Lessons
Belief & Identity

The Ethiopian Processional Cross: A Christian Tradition Older Than Most

⏱ 45 minutes 🎓 Primary & Secondary 📚 history, art, religion, ethics, citizenship
Core question Christianity in Ethiopia is older than Christianity in most of Europe. What can one elaborate cross teach us about a tradition that has lasted nearly 1,700 years — and about how easy it is for the wider world to overlook it?
A group of Ethiopian processional crosses. Each cross is unique, made of intricate metal latticework. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has used such crosses since at least the 10th century in religious ceremonies and processions. Photo: A. Davey / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0
Introduction

Many people in the world think of Christianity as a European religion. They are wrong. Christianity began in the Middle East, in what is now Israel and Palestine, in the 1st century. From there it spread in many directions at once — north into Europe, east into Asia, and south into Africa. The kingdom of Aksum, in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, became a Christian kingdom around 333 CE, when King Ezana converted. This was earlier than most of Europe. The Ethiopian church has continued, without a break, ever since. It is now nearly 1,700 years old. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has its own language for worship — Geʽez, an ancient African language. It has its own calendar, with 13 months and a New Year on 11 September. It has its own art, music, and ceremonies. And it has its own crosses. The Ethiopian processional cross is one of the most beautiful objects in any Christian tradition. It is made of metal — usually brass or bronze — with elaborate latticework. The patterns are crosses inside crosses, openwork triangles, ornamented bands, and figures from the Bible. No two crosses are exactly the same. Each one is a piece of original art. The crosses are mounted on long wooden poles. A priest holds the cross high above the crowd during a procession. People come up to kiss the cross as a blessing. The most famous of these is the Lalibela Cross, a 12th-century gold and bronze cross held at the rock-cut church of Bet Medhane Alem in Lalibela. This lesson asks who made these crosses, what they mean, and why one of the oldest Christian traditions in the world is so often overlooked outside Africa.

The object
Origin
Ethiopia and Eritrea. Made by Ethiopian metalworkers across many regions and centuries. Used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
Period
Used since at least the 10th century. Christianity arrived in Ethiopia much earlier — about 333 CE, under King Ezana of Aksum. The cross has been part of the Ethiopian church ever since. Crosses are still made and used today.
Made of
Most often brass or copper alloy (bronze). Some crosses are made of silver or gold. Older crosses were cast from a wax model. Since the 1800s, most have been cut from a flat sheet of metal and pierced with designs. The crosses are mounted on long wooden poles for processions.
Size
Cross alone is usually 25 to 50 cm tall. With the wooden pole, the whole object can be 2 metres or more. Some famous crosses, like the Lalibela Cross, weigh up to 7 kg. Most processional crosses are lighter, perhaps 1 to 2 kg.
Number of objects
Many thousands of processional crosses exist in Ethiopian and Eritrean churches today. Major museum collections include the Smithsonian, the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, the British Museum, and the National Museum of Ethiopia.
Where it is now
In active use in Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox churches and monasteries. Especially visible at the festival of Timkat (Epiphany) every January, when priests process through the streets carrying crosses high above their heads.
Before you teach this — reflect

Questions for you

  1. Many students may think of Christianity as European. How will you teach honestly that Christianity is also African, Asian, and Middle Eastern, with traditions just as old as European ones?
  2. The Ethiopian Orthodox tradition is alive today. How will you teach this in present tense, not as a curiosity from the past?
  3. Some students may belong to other Christian traditions, or to other religions, or to none. How will you teach Ethiopian Christianity respectfully without assuming everyone shares the same beliefs?

Common student difficulties — tick any you have noticed

Discovery sequence
1
Imagine a king. He rules a kingdom in northeast Africa called Aksum. The kingdom is wealthy. It controls trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Its ships carry gold, ivory, and spices. Its people speak Geʽez, an ancient language. Its capital city has tall stone monuments called stelae, some over 30 metres high. The king's name is Ezana. The year is around 333 CE. Ezana decides to become a Christian. He has been taught about Christianity by a young man called Frumentius, who became his adviser after being shipwrecked off the Red Sea coast as a boy. After becoming a Christian, Ezana has crosses put on his coins, on his stelae, on his official letters. The kingdom of Aksum becomes a Christian kingdom. This is happening at almost the same time as the Roman emperor Constantine is making Christianity legal in the Roman Empire (313 CE). It is centuries before England, France, Germany, or most of Europe become Christian. It is more than 1,000 years before Russia. Why is this story so rarely told?
Points to consider (for the teacher)

Many reasons. The most basic: in countries where most history is taught from a European perspective, African Christian history gets less attention. There has been a long tendency in Western teaching to treat Christianity as something that came from Europe and was brought to Africa by missionaries — when in fact Christianity arrived in Ethiopia 1,500 years before European missionaries arrived in most of Africa. The Ethiopian church developed independently, with its own theology, its own language, its own art, its own architecture. It survived the rise of Islam in the 7th century, when most of North Africa became Muslim — Ethiopia remained Christian, in the highlands, surrounded by Muslim kingdoms. It survived European colonialism in the 1800s and 1900s — Ethiopia was the only country in Africa never to be fully colonised. The Ethiopian church is one of the great unbroken traditions of world Christianity, alongside the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Coptic, Armenian, Syriac, and others. Students should see that the world map of Christianity is much wider than they may have been taught. Africa was not 'converted' to Christianity recently. Parts of Africa have been Christian since before most of Europe was. The Ethiopian processional cross is a 1,700-year-old object of a 1,700-year-old tradition.

2
A processional cross is meant to be carried. It is mounted on a long wooden pole, sometimes wrapped in colourful cloth. A priest holds the pole high. The cross moves through the church, or down the street, above the heads of the crowd. People come up to kiss the cross as it passes. The kiss is a blessing. The crosses are made by skilled metalworkers. The older crosses, from before the 1800s, were cast — molten metal poured into a wax model, then the wax was melted away. Newer crosses are cut from a flat sheet of metal and pierced with designs. Either way, the work is highly skilled. The patterns are complex. Each craftsperson makes the cross differently. No two are exactly alike. The most famous cross is the Lalibela Cross. It is held at Bet Medhane Alem — the House of the Redeemer of the World — a 12th-century church carved from solid rock in the town of Lalibela in northern Ethiopia. The cross is gold or bronze and gold, weighs about 7 kg, and is over 800 years old. It was once stolen, in 1997. Police found it in 2001 and returned it to the church. Believers say it has miraculous power. Why might a tradition want every cross to be different?
Points to consider (for the teacher)

Several reasons. First, beauty: an art form where every piece is different keeps the tradition alive and creative. Each generation of craftspeople adds something new. Second, individuality: each cross is associated with a particular church or monastery or patron, and being unique makes it identifiable. Third, theology: in the Ethiopian tradition, the cross is a sacred object that comes from God's grace, not a manufactured product. Each one is a unique gift. The latticework patterns — crosses inside crosses, in endless variation — symbolise eternity and infinity. The intertwined designs are sometimes said to represent everlasting life. Fourth, practical: many crosses are commissioned by patrons who want to leave something to a church for their soul. Each patron wants their cross to be distinctive. Compare this with the more standardised approach of much Western Christian art. The Ethiopian tradition values craftsmanship, originality, and the personal gift of each maker. Students should see that 'cross' is not one shape. It is a family of shapes, with thousands of variations, each made by hand, each unique. The cross they may know from their own surroundings is one tiny part of a much larger family.

3
In January every year, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church celebrates Timkat — the festival of Epiphany. Epiphany commemorates the baptism of Jesus in the River Jordan. In Ethiopia, Timkat is one of the great festivals of the year. Streets fill with people. Priests in elaborate robes process through the towns. They carry replicas of the Tablets of the Covenant — the Tabot — which represent the Ark of the Covenant. They also carry processional crosses, held high above the crowd, sometimes shaded by colourful umbrellas. The processions arrive at a body of water — a river, a pool, a lake. The water is blessed. People gather around. Some wade into the water to be re-baptised. Drums beat. Priests chant in Geʽez. The crosses are everywhere. For three days, the festival continues. People wear their best clothes — many wear traditional white cotton garments. Children play. Families share food. The processional crosses are at the heart of every ceremony. Why might a religious tradition centre itself on processions?
Points to consider (for the teacher)

Because processions bring religion out of the building and into the street. They make the sacred public. They turn a private faith into a community celebration. The Ethiopian Orthodox tradition has many great festivals — Timkat (Epiphany, January), Meskel (the Finding of the True Cross, September), Genna (Christmas, January 7), Fasika (Easter). At each, processional crosses are held high. The crosses become a moving sign of the faith. They link the church to the streets, the priests to the people, the present moment to all the previous Timkats going back centuries. There is also a deeper point: religious objects in some traditions are very portable. They are carried, kissed, blessed, taken to the sick, brought to weddings, used in funerals. They are not locked away. Compare with traditions where religious objects are mostly fixed inside churches. The Ethiopian processional cross is a working object — meant to be carried, meant to move, meant to bless. Students should see that 'religious art' can mean two different things. It can mean a fixed image inside a building, like a stained-glass window. Or it can mean a portable object, carried through the streets. The Ethiopian cross is the second kind.

4
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has about 50 million members today. It is the largest church in Ethiopia and one of the largest churches in Africa. Its services are held in Geʽez, an ancient language that ordinary people no longer speak in daily life — like Latin in the older Catholic Church, or Hebrew in some Jewish synagogues. Priests train for years to learn Geʽez and the church's complex liturgy. The church follows its own calendar, with 13 months — 12 months of 30 days each, and a 13th 'small month' of 5 or 6 days at the end of the year. The Ethiopian New Year falls on 11 September in the Western calendar. The Ethiopian year 2018 began in September 2025. So when the Western world celebrates 2026, Ethiopia is partway through 2018. The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church became formally separate in 1993, after Eritrea became independent from Ethiopia. The two churches share most traditions, including the processional cross. The Ethiopian church has faced real challenges in modern times. The communist government of Ethiopia (1974-1991) suppressed religion and persecuted clergy. Theft of religious objects, including crosses, has been a recurring problem — many ancient crosses have been smuggled out of churches and sold to collectors abroad. War in northern Ethiopia in 2020-2022 damaged some monasteries and killed some clergy. The church works hard to protect its heritage and its people. What is the Ethiopian Christian tradition today?
Points to consider (for the teacher)

A living, complex, modern tradition. About 50 million people belong to it. Millions more belong to the Eritrean Orthodox Church and to the Ethiopian Catholic Church and to various Ethiopian Protestant churches. Together with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt, the Armenian Apostolic Church, and the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is part of the Oriental Orthodox communion — a family of ancient Eastern Christian churches that broke from the rest of the church after a theological dispute in 451 CE at the Council of Chalcedon. Ethiopian Christians live across the world today — in Ethiopia and Eritrea, but also in large communities in the United States, Israel, Europe, and the Middle East. Wherever Ethiopians live, the church often follows. Ethiopian Christmas, Timkat, Meskel are celebrated by Ethiopian communities in many countries. Students should see that 'Ethiopian Christianity' is not one ancient thing. It is a contemporary tradition with millions of living members, with priests trained today, with new crosses being made today, with festivals celebrated today. The 1,700-year-old tradition is also a tradition of right now. End the discovery here. The cross will be carried in next January's Timkat. The story continues.

What this object teaches

The Ethiopian processional cross (mäsqäl) is a metal cross used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. It is mounted on a long wooden pole, held high by a priest during religious processions. The crosses are made of brass, bronze, silver, or gold, with elaborate latticework patterns. Each cross is unique — no two are exactly alike. Christianity arrived in Ethiopia around 333 CE, when King Ezana of Aksum converted. This was earlier than most of Europe. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has continued without a break ever since, making it one of the oldest continuous Christian traditions in the world. The church uses Geʽez, an ancient African language, in its services. It has its own 13-month calendar. It has its own art, music, and ceremonies. The most famous processional cross is the Lalibela Cross, a 12th-century gold and bronze cross held at the rock-cut church of Bet Medhane Alem in Lalibela. The cross is at the heart of major festivals like Timkat (Epiphany, January) and Meskel (Finding of the True Cross, September). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church today has about 50 million members, with communities worldwide. Many Ethiopian crosses have been stolen from churches and now sit in museums and private collections abroad — a real ongoing issue.

DateEventWhat changed
around 333 CEKing Ezana of Aksum becomes a ChristianThe kingdom of Aksum (modern Ethiopia and Eritrea) becomes a Christian kingdom
451 CECouncil of Chalcedon splits the churchThe Ethiopian church becomes part of the Oriental Orthodox family of churches, separate from the Roman and Byzantine churches
600s-900sRise of Islam across North AfricaMost of North Africa becomes Muslim; Ethiopia remains Christian, surrounded by Muslim kingdoms
1100s-1200sKing Lalibela builds rock-cut churchesEleven churches are carved from solid rock at Lalibela; the Lalibela Cross is made
1500sCatholic Portuguese contact and conflictCatholic missionaries arrive; the Ethiopian church resists conversion and remains Orthodox
1974-1991Communist government in EthiopiaReligion suppressed, clergy persecuted; the church survives and rebuilds after the government falls
TodayActive living traditionAbout 50 million members; festivals celebrated worldwide; new crosses still made by hand
Key words
Aksum
An ancient kingdom in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. One of the great trading powers of the ancient world, controlling routes between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Became a Christian kingdom around 333 CE.
Example: The Aksumite stelae — tall stone monuments — are still standing in modern Aksum. Some are over 30 metres tall, among the largest single pieces of stone ever raised in the ancient world.
Geʽez
An ancient Semitic language, related to Arabic and Hebrew, originally spoken in the kingdom of Aksum. No longer spoken in daily life, but still used in Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox church services. Has its own script, the Geʽez alphabet.
Example: Modern Ethiopian languages like Amharic and Tigrinya are descended from Geʽez and use the same script. Priests train for years to read and chant Geʽez fluently.
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
The main Christian church of Ethiopia, with about 50 million members. 'Tewahedo' means 'unified' in Geʽez and refers to the church's belief that Christ has one unified nature. Part of the Oriental Orthodox family of churches.
Example: The church is led by a Patriarch based in Addis Ababa. It has thousands of churches and monasteries across Ethiopia and worldwide. Its festivals are public holidays in Ethiopia.
Lalibela
A town in northern Ethiopia, famous for eleven medieval churches carved from solid rock in the 12th and 13th centuries. Named after King Lalibela, who ordered their building. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Example: The most famous of the Lalibela churches is Bet Giyorgis (the House of Saint George), carved in the shape of a cross from a single block of rock. Pilgrims come from across Ethiopia.
Timkat
The Ethiopian Orthodox festival of Epiphany, celebrated every January 19 (or January 20 in leap years). Commemorates the baptism of Jesus. Three days of processions, water blessings, and chanting. One of Ethiopia's most important festivals.
Example: During Timkat, priests carry processional crosses and Tabots (replicas of the Ark of the Covenant) through the streets. Many people are re-baptised in blessed water.
Mäsqäl
The Geʽez and Amharic word for 'cross'. Also the name of the Ethiopian festival of Meskel, held every September 27, which celebrates the finding of the True Cross of Jesus by Empress Helena in the 4th century.
Example: Meskel is celebrated with bonfires and processions. Yellow Meskel daisies bloom across Ethiopia at this time of year, marking the end of the rainy season.
Use this in other subjects
  • Geography: On a map of Africa, mark Ethiopia and Eritrea. Note the highlands of northern Ethiopia where the ancient kingdom of Aksum was based. Discuss how Ethiopia's mountainous geography helped protect it from invasion — Ethiopia was the only African country never fully colonised by European powers.
  • History: Build a class timeline comparing the spread of Christianity: Roman Empire becomes Christian (380 CE under Theodosius), Aksum becomes Christian (around 333 CE), Ireland becomes Christian (around 432 CE with Saint Patrick), England becomes Christian (around 597 CE with Augustine), Russia becomes Christian (988 CE). Ethiopia is among the earliest.
  • Art: Look at images of Ethiopian processional crosses from different centuries. Notice how each is unique. Each student designs their own cross on paper, with their own pattern of latticework. The pattern can mean something — protection, family, hope, peace. Discuss what a unique design adds to a religious tradition.
  • Language: The Geʽez script has its own alphabet of 26 basic characters, each with seven vowel forms — 182 in total. Compare with the Latin alphabet (26 letters) and the Arabic alphabet (28 letters). Discuss how scripts develop. The Geʽez script is one of the few non-European scripts still used in Christian worship.
  • Citizenship: Ethiopia was the only African country never fully colonised by European powers. Discuss what this means for cultural continuity. The Ethiopian church kept its traditions through centuries that saw most other places transformed by colonisation. Are there parallels in other parts of the world?
  • Ethics: Many Ethiopian processional crosses have been stolen from churches and sold to collectors abroad. Discuss the ethics. Should museums return Ethiopian religious objects to Ethiopian churches? This is a real ongoing question, similar to the debate over the Benin Bronzes, the Parthenon Marbles, and the Rosetta Stone.
Common misconceptions
Wrong

Christianity is a European religion that was brought to Africa by missionaries.

Right

Christianity began in the Middle East and spread to Africa, Europe, and Asia at the same time. The kingdom of Aksum (now Ethiopia and Eritrea) became Christian around 333 CE, earlier than most of Europe. Ethiopian Christianity is older than English, French, German, Spanish, or Russian Christianity.

Why

Calling Christianity 'European' erases nearly two thousand years of African and Asian Christian history.

Wrong

All Christian crosses look basically the same.

Right

Crosses vary enormously across Christian traditions. Ethiopian processional crosses are made of intricate latticework, with no two exactly alike. They look very different from Western crucifixes. Each Ethiopian cross is original art, made by a different craftsperson.

Why

Treating Christian art as one thing erases the rich variety of traditions. Each Christian community has developed its own visual language.

Wrong

Ethiopian Christianity is a small or unusual tradition.

Right

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has about 50 million members — one of the largest Christian churches in Africa, and one of the oldest continuous Christian traditions anywhere. It is part of the Oriental Orthodox family, alongside the Coptic, Armenian, and Syriac churches.

Why

'Small' or 'unusual' makes a major world tradition sound marginal. Fifty million people is not unusual.

Wrong

Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity is the same as Roman Catholic or Protestant Christianity.

Right

It is a separate tradition with its own theology, language, calendar, art, music, and history. It broke from the rest of the church after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. It has its own Patriarch, its own holy books, its own festivals.

Why

Treating all Christian traditions as the same erases the real differences and the long histories that produced them.

Teaching this with care

Treat the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition with the same respect you would give to any other major living religion. Use 'Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church' (capitalised, full name) when first mentioning it; 'Ethiopian Orthodox Church' as a shorter form. Pronounce 'Tewahedo' as roughly 'teh-wah-HEH-doh'; 'Geʽez' as roughly 'GEE-ehz' or 'gəʿəz'; 'mäsqäl' as roughly 'MAS-kal'; 'Aksum' as 'AKS-oom'; 'Lalibela' as 'lah-lee-BEH-lah'; 'Timkat' as 'TIM-kat'. The lesson is about a Christian tradition. Some of your students may be Christians of other denominations (Catholic, Protestant, Pentecostal, Orthodox); some may be Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, of other faiths, or of no faith. Teach Ethiopian Christianity respectfully without assuming everyone shares the same beliefs. Avoid theological debates about which form of Christianity is 'correct' — present the Ethiopian tradition on its own terms. Be especially careful to avoid the trap of treating Ethiopian Christianity as 'exotic' or 'mysterious' or 'colourful'. It is a major world religious tradition with sophisticated theology, complex liturgy, and millions of educated practitioners. Many Ethiopian Orthodox priests have advanced theological training. The tradition is as serious as any other. Be careful with the topic of stolen crosses. Many Ethiopian religious objects in Western museums and private collections were taken during specific events — the British military expedition to Maqdala in 1868, when troops looted thousands of objects from Emperor Tewodros's collection; various looting during the Italian occupation (1936-1941); ongoing theft from churches by smugglers. The Maqdala collection in particular is a live restitution issue, with the Ethiopian government formally requesting return of objects from British museums. Mention the issue briefly and honestly. If you have students of Ethiopian or Eritrean heritage, give them space to share but do not put them on the spot. Ethiopians and Eritreans have complex national feelings — the two countries fought a war from 1998-2000 and tensions have continued. Be sensitive. End the lesson on the present. The cross will be carried in next January's Timkat. The tradition is alive.

Check what students have understood

Answer each question in one or two sentences. Use what you have learned about the Ethiopian processional cross.

  1. When did Ethiopia become a Christian kingdom, and how does this compare with Europe?

    Ethiopia became a Christian kingdom around 333 CE, when King Ezana of Aksum converted. This was earlier than most of Europe — earlier than England, France, Germany, Spain, or Russia. Ethiopian Christianity is one of the oldest continuous Christian traditions in the world.
    Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that mentions both the date around 333 CE (or 4th century) and the comparison with Europe.

  2. What is an Ethiopian processional cross, and how is it used?

    It is an elaborate metal cross — usually brass, bronze, silver, or gold — with intricate latticework patterns. It is mounted on a long wooden pole, held high by a priest during religious processions. People come up to kiss the cross as a blessing. No two crosses are exactly alike.
    Marking note: Strong answers will mention the materials, the pole, the procession use, and the unique nature of each cross. Three of these is enough for full marks.

  3. What is Timkat, and why is it important?

    Timkat is the Ethiopian Orthodox festival of Epiphany, celebrated every January 19. It commemorates the baptism of Jesus. Three days of processions, water blessings, and chanting. Priests carry processional crosses and Tabots through the streets. It is one of Ethiopia's most important religious festivals.
    Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that names the festival, gives its religious meaning, and mentions a feature of the celebration.

  4. How is the Ethiopian Orthodox Church different from the Catholic or Protestant churches?

    It is a separate tradition with its own theology, language (Geʽez), calendar (13 months), art, music, and history. It broke from the rest of the church after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. It has its own Patriarch, festivals, and ceremonies. It is part of the Oriental Orthodox family of churches.
    Marking note: Strong answers will mention at least three specific differences. Naming Geʽez or the Council of Chalcedon is a bonus.

  5. How many members does the Ethiopian Orthodox Church have today?

    About 50 million members. It is the largest church in Ethiopia and one of the largest in Africa. It also has communities worldwide, especially in the United States, Israel, Europe, and the Middle East.
    Marking note: Award full marks for the figure of about 50 million. Bonus points for noting the worldwide diaspora.
Discuss together

These questions have no single right answer. Talk in pairs or small groups, then share your ideas with the class.

  1. Many people in the world think of Christianity as European. Why might this idea exist, and how does the Ethiopian story challenge it?

    Push students to think about how histories get told. The idea exists partly because European Christianity became dominant in the colonial period, when European powers spread their version of Christianity across the world. School curricula in many countries still emphasise European Christian history. The Ethiopian story challenges this because it shows Christianity has been African for nearly 1,700 years. The deeper point is that 'whose history gets told' shapes what we think we know. Ethiopian, Coptic Egyptian, Armenian, Syriac, and other ancient Christian traditions are real and major and old. End by asking what other traditions might be similarly overlooked.

  2. Each Ethiopian processional cross is unique — no two are exactly the same. What does this teach us about religious art?

    This is a question about creativity within tradition. Students may suggest: it shows respect for the maker, it keeps the tradition alive, it allows each community its own identity, it makes each cross precious. The deeper point is that 'tradition' and 'originality' are not opposites. The Ethiopian cross tradition has rules (it is a cross, it is metal, it has latticework) but each maker creates something new within those rules. Many great traditions work this way — jazz music, classical Indian dance, calligraphy in many scripts. End by asking whether any tradition can survive without each generation contributing something new.

  3. Many Ethiopian crosses have been stolen and now sit in museums abroad. Should they be returned?

    This is a real ongoing question. Strong answers will see arguments on multiple sides. Arguments for return: the crosses are sacred objects of a living tradition, they are still wanted by the communities that made them, they were often taken by force or theft, returning them respects the originating culture. Arguments against immediate return: some museums argue they protect objects that might be at risk in their countries of origin, that they make the objects available to a global audience, that the legal situation is complex. The Maqdala objects taken by the British in 1868 are a particularly clear case of looting. Mention the parallels with the Benin Bronzes, the Parthenon Marbles, and other restitution debates. End by saying that thoughtful people disagree, and that many museums are now starting to return some objects while keeping others.
Teaching sequence
  1. THE HOOK (5 min)
    Without saying anything about the lesson, ask: 'Where did Christianity start, and where did it spread first?' Take guesses. Then say: 'Christianity began in the Middle East. It spread north into Europe, east into Asia, and south into Africa, all at the same time. The kingdom of Aksum, in what is now Ethiopia, became Christian around 333 CE — earlier than England, France, Germany, or most of Europe. We are going to find out about a beautiful object from this tradition.'
  2. INTRODUCE THE OBJECT (10 min)
    Describe the Ethiopian processional cross: a metal cross with elaborate latticework, mounted on a long pole, held high by a priest during processions. Each cross is unique — no two are exactly alike. The most famous is the Lalibela Cross, over 800 years old. Pause and ask: 'Why might a tradition want every cross to be different?' Listen to answers.
  3. THE OLDEST CHRISTIANITY (15 min)
    Tell the story of King Ezana and the kingdom of Aksum. Around 333 CE — earlier than most of Europe. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has continued without a break for nearly 1,700 years. About 50 million members today. Discuss: how can a tradition this old still be alive? End by asking: 'Why is this story so rarely told outside Ethiopia?'
  4. THE CROSS DESIGN (10 min)
    Each student designs their own cross on paper. They must choose: (1) an overall shape (square, circular, fan-shaped); (2) a pattern of latticework; (3) one feature that means something to them. Display the designs. Discuss: real Ethiopian crosses are made this way, with each metalworker adding their own design.
  5. CLOSING (5 min)
    Ask: 'What does the Ethiopian cross teach us about religious traditions, and about which stories get told?' Take a few honest answers. End by saying: 'Christianity is older than most of us think, and far more African than European maps suggest. Every January, in towns and cities across Ethiopia, priests hold their crosses high and people come to kiss them. The tradition is alive. The story continues. Now you know.'
Classroom materials
Design a Cross
Instructions: Each student designs their own cross on paper. They must choose: (1) overall shape; (2) pattern of latticework; (3) one feature that has personal meaning. Display the designs. Discuss: each Ethiopian metalworker does the same — original work within a 1,700-year tradition. Each cross has the maker's signature in its design.
Example: In Mr Tesfaye's class, students invented crosses with patterns based on family names, favourite places, and traditional motifs. The teacher said: 'You have just done what every Ethiopian metalworker does. Your cross is part of an ancient family of designs and yet it is also yours alone. The Ethiopian tradition has worked this way for over 1,000 years. The principle is the same.'
The Calendar Question
Instructions: Discuss: the Ethiopian calendar has 13 months and is 7-8 years behind the Western calendar. The Ethiopian New Year is on 11 September. Each student calculates: what is today's date in the Ethiopian calendar? (Subtract about 7-8 years, adjust for the September start.) Discuss: there are many calendars in the world today — Western, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Islamic, Chinese, Persian, Hindu. Each measures time differently.
Example: In one class, students were surprised that 'the year' is not one fixed thing. The teacher said: 'You are used to one calendar. But in Ethiopia, today's date is different. In Israel, it is different again. In Saudi Arabia, different again. Each calendar reflects a different way of measuring time, often tied to a religious tradition. The Ethiopian calendar is part of the Ethiopian Christian tradition, with its own structure that goes back over 1,500 years.'
Whose Story Gets Told?
Instructions: In small groups, students discuss: 'What other histories might be overlooked because they don't fit the usual story?' Examples might include: Asian Christianity (the Church of the East reached China by 635 CE), African mathematics (the Ishango bone, ancient Egyptian fractions), Indigenous American astronomy, women's contributions to science. Each group shares one example. Discuss: history depends on who tells it.
Example: In Mrs Olu's class, students named: the Indian invention of zero, the Chinese invention of paper, the African origins of human language. The teacher said: 'You have just listed real histories that often get sidelined. The Ethiopian Christian story is one of many. The lesson here is to ask, with any tradition, who first did this, where, and when. The answer often surprises us.'
Where to go next
  • Try a lesson on Coptic textiles or icons for another ancient African Christian tradition. Egypt was Christian before Europe was.
  • Try a lesson on the Armenian khachkar (cross-stone) for another ancient Christian tradition outside Europe. Armenia became Christian in 301 CE — even earlier than Aksum.
  • Try a lesson on the Lalibela rock-cut churches for another wonder of Ethiopian Christianity.
  • Connect this lesson to history class with a longer project on the spread of Christianity in the first thousand years. The Ethiopian story is part of a wider picture.
  • Connect this lesson to art class with a longer project on religious art across cultures. Ethiopian crosses, Tibetan thangkas, Hindu murti, Islamic calligraphy, Jewish menorahs all carry their own visual languages.
  • Connect this lesson to citizenship class with a longer discussion of restitution. The Maqdala objects in British museums are a real ongoing question, with parallels worldwide.
Key takeaways
  • The Ethiopian processional cross is a metal cross with elaborate latticework, mounted on a long pole, held high by a priest during religious processions. Each cross is unique — no two are exactly alike.
  • Ethiopia became a Christian kingdom around 333 CE under King Ezana of Aksum, earlier than most of Europe. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has continued without a break ever since, making it one of the oldest continuous Christian traditions in the world.
  • The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has about 50 million members today. It uses Geʽez, an ancient African language, in its services. It has its own 13-month calendar with the New Year on 11 September.
  • The most famous Ethiopian cross is the Lalibela Cross, a 12th-century gold and bronze cross held at the rock-cut church of Bet Medhane Alem in Lalibela.
  • The cross is at the heart of major festivals like Timkat (Epiphany, January) and Meskel (Finding of the True Cross, September), when priests carry crosses high above crowds in long processions.
  • Many Ethiopian crosses were stolen during events like the British Maqdala expedition of 1868 and now sit in foreign museums and collections. The return of these objects is an active issue, with parallels to the Benin Bronzes and other restitution debates.
Sources
  • African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia — Roderick Grierson (ed.) (1993) [academic]
  • Ethiopian Crosses: A Cultural History and Chronology — Mario Di Salvo (2006) [academic]
  • Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia — Paul B. Henze (2000) [academic]
  • The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church — Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Patriarchate (2024) [institution]
  • Maqdala 1868: A Reassessment of the British Expedition to Abyssinia — Victoria and Albert Museum (2018) [institution]