Objects – teachanyclass.org

Introduction

Imagine that you believe the body must be kept whole for the journey after death. Not just the outside, but every important part of the inside too. Imagine that you believe the liver, the lungs, the stomach, and the intestines each have their own divine guardian. Imagine that you believe the heart is so important that it must stay in the body itself, because the gods will weigh it after death to judge your life. This is what many ancient Egyptians believed. And because of this belief, when a person of means died in ancient Egypt, the people who prepared the body for burial removed four organs and placed each one in its own jar. These jars are called canopic jars. They were placed in the tomb alongside the mummy. Each jar had a lid shaped as the head of one of the Four Sons of Horus, the gods who were believed to protect those organs. The human-headed Imsety protected the liver. The baboon-headed Hapy protected the lungs. The jackal-headed Duamutef protected the stomach. The falcon-headed Qebehsenuef protected the intestines. Canopic jars were made in ancient Egypt for nearly 2,700 years, from the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period. They changed over time. Early jars were plain stone with simple round lids. Later jars became elaborate works of art in alabaster, limestone, or glazed ceramic, painted with inscriptions and spells. The finest sets were made for pharaohs and senior officials. Simpler sets were made for those with less wealth. Today, thousands of canopic jars survive in museums around the world. They are among the most recognisable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilisation. They also sit at the centre of a serious ongoing debate about where ancient objects belong, who has the right to hold human remains, and whether objects removed from graves should be returned.

The object

Origin: Ancient Egypt. Canopic jars were used throughout Egypt from the Old Kingdom period (about 2686 BCE) until the Ptolemaic period (about 30 BCE). Examples are now held in museums on every continent.
Period: Used from about 2686 BCE to about 30 BCE, a span of nearly 2,700 years. Their design changed over time. The most recognisable form, with lids showing the Four Sons of Horus, was common from about 1550 BCE.
Made of: Most commonly limestone or alabaster. Some were made of pottery, wood, faience (a glazed ceramic), or in rare royal cases gold. The quality of the material indicated the wealth and status of the person buried.
Size: Typically 25 to 50 centimetres tall, including the lid. Wide enough to hold a human organ wrapped in linen. Usually made in sets of four, one for each of the four organs removed during mummification.
Number of objects: Thousands of canopic jars survive. Major collections are held at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the British Museum in London, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Louvre in Paris, and many other institutions worldwide.
Where it is now: Canopic jars are in museum collections around the world. The finest royal sets remain in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The set shown in the image is from tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings.

Before you teach this — reflect

Questions for you

The canopic jars often contain the actual preserved organs of people who died thousands of years ago. How will you teach with the same respect for ancient human remains that you would use for contemporary ones?
Many canopic jars are in museums outside Egypt, removed during the era of colonial archaeology. How will you teach the history honestly, including this context?
The religious beliefs that made canopic jars necessary are no longer widely practised. How will you teach those beliefs with the same respect you would give to a living religion?

Common student difficulties — tick any you have noticed

My students may not know the basic stages of ancient Egyptian mummification: the removal of organs, the use of natron salt to dry the body, the wrapping in linen, and the placement of the mummy in a coffin.
My students may not know that the heart was the one organ left inside the body, because Egyptians believed the gods would weigh it to judge the person's life after death.
My students may not know the Four Sons of Horus by name or by their animal heads: Imsety (human, liver), Hapy (baboon, lungs), Duamutef (jackal, stomach), Qebehsenuef (falcon, intestines).
My students may not know that canopic jars changed design over time, from plain early jars to the elaborate animal-headed versions most commonly seen in museums.
My students may not know that most surviving canopic jars are in museums outside Egypt, removed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and that Egypt has called for some to be returned.
My students may not know that canopic jars sometimes still contain the preserved organs of ancient Egyptians — they are not just containers but funerary objects with human remains inside.

Discovery sequence

1

Think about what the body needs after death. Most cultures have strong beliefs about this. Some believe the body should return to the earth. Some believe it should be cremated. Some believe it should be preserved. The ancient Egyptians who could afford elaborate burials believed the body must be kept as whole as possible for the person to live in the afterlife. The problem was that the inside of the body decays faster than the outside. The organs begin to break down within hours. If you want to preserve the body, you have to deal with the organs. The ancient Egyptian solution was to remove the organs, treat them separately, and store them nearby. The organs were dried with natron, a naturally occurring salt. They were wrapped in linen. They were placed in four separate jars, one organ per jar. The jars were then placed in the tomb. The one organ not removed was the heart. The Egyptians believed the heart was the seat of the person's intelligence, memory, and personality. After death, in the Hall of Two Truths, the god Anubis would weigh the heart against a feather. If the heart was lighter than the feather, the person had lived justly and could enter the afterlife. If it was heavier, it meant the person had not lived well. What does it tell us about a civilisation that they developed such a careful system for preserving organs?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

It tells us they took the afterlife very seriously as a practical matter, not just a philosophical idea. The mummification process was expensive, time-consuming, and required specialist knowledge. It could take up to 70 days. Only people with significant resources could afford a full mummification with a proper set of canopic jars. This is important: canopic jars mostly survive from the tombs of wealthy and powerful people. We know less about how ordinary Egyptians were buried, because their tombs were simpler and less well preserved. Students should see that the objects surviving in museums often represent the wealthy dead, not everyone. The canopic jar system also tells us about the relationship between science and religion in ancient Egypt. The embalmers understood that organs decay. They developed practical techniques to prevent decay. These techniques were understood as both practical and sacred.

2

The Four Sons of Horus are a good example of how Egyptian religion connected the human body to the cosmos. Each son protected an organ. Each was also connected to a direction of the compass. Each was protected in turn by a mother goddess: Nephthys, Isis, Neith, and Selqet. This created an elaborate system of connections. The person in the tomb was at the centre. Their organs were distributed in the four directions, protected by four divine sons, guarded by four goddesses. The whole burial became a kind of map of the cosmos, with the dead person connected to the divine order of the universe. The design of the lids changed over time. Early canopic jars had plain human-headed lids. These probably represented the dead person. Later, during the New Kingdom (about 1550 to 1070 BCE), the lids changed to show animal heads: baboon, jackal, falcon, and human. These represented the Four Sons of Horus themselves. Why might the design of a religious object change over a thousand years?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

Because religions are not fixed. They develop, change, and respond to political events. The change in canopic jar lids reflects a shift in Egyptian religious thinking about divine protection. Early jars suggest the dead person continues in a human form. Later jars suggest the dead person is under the specific protection of specific divine beings. By the Third Intermediate Period, improved embalming techniques meant the organs were sometimes returned to the body. But the jars were still placed in the tomb, now empty, because the tradition had become too important to abandon. This is a fascinating example of a religious practice persisting even after its original practical purpose had changed. Students should see that religious objects and practices change over time even within one civilisation. This is true of all religions, not just ancient Egyptian religion.

3

Most canopic jars in museums were removed from Egypt during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, during the era of European exploration and colonial power. At the time, there were few laws protecting ancient objects. European collectors, explorers, and archaeologists removed enormous numbers of objects from tombs and temples and brought them back to Europe. The British Museum, the Louvre, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and many other major institutions hold large collections of Egyptian objects, including canopic jars. The Egyptian Museum in Cairo also holds major collections, including the spectacular finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun. In recent decades, Egypt has asked for the return of some of these objects. The debate about repatriation is real and ongoing. Arguments for return: the objects were removed without consent, often by colonial powers; they belong in the country where they were made; modern Egyptians have a legitimate claim to their own heritage. Arguments for keeping: the museums have preserved the objects well; they allow people worldwide to learn about ancient Egypt; the objects were acquired under the laws of the time. What makes an object belong to a place?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

This is one of the live debates in the museum world today. It connects to the Benin Bronzes and the Rosetta Stone lessons in this collection. Strong answers will see that both sides have genuine points. The objects were made in Egypt, by Egyptians, for Egyptians, and express Egyptian religious beliefs. That is a strong connection to Egypt. But the museums that hold them have also created real knowledge about them, preserved them, and made them accessible to global audiences. There is no simple answer. The right path is probably careful negotiation, with Egyptian institutions and scholars fully involved. Students should also note that there is a specific issue with canopic jars: they may contain human remains. The question of what to do with ancient human remains is separate from, and perhaps more urgent than, the question of what to do with ordinary objects.

4

Canopic jars are now among the most studied ancient objects in the world. Modern science can learn from them in ways that the ancient Egyptians never anticipated. Scientists have used CT scans, X-rays, and MRI scans to look inside canopic jars without opening them. These scans can show whether organs are still present, how they were prepared, and sometimes reveal information about the diseases the person suffered from. DNA analysis has been attempted on organic remains inside some jars, though ancient DNA degrades over thousands of years and results are often difficult to interpret. Canopic jars have revealed information about diseases in ancient Egypt, including evidence of parasites, infections, and in some cases specific illnesses. They are, in effect, medical time capsules. At the same time, their very usefulness as scientific objects raises ethical questions. These are human remains, placed in the ground according to specific religious beliefs. The people who buried them did not expect them to be scanned, analysed, or displayed in museums. How should scientists and museums balance the value of knowledge against the need to respect human remains?

Points to consider (for the teacher)

This is a genuinely hard question. There are real benefits to studying ancient human remains: we learn about diet, disease, migration, and history in ways that cannot be discovered otherwise. There are also real costs: we are disturbing what were meant to be permanent resting places, according to beliefs that were deeply held. Different communities have different views on this. Some Indigenous communities in other contexts have successfully argued that their ancestors' remains should not be studied without consent and should be returned for reburial. Ancient Egyptian communities are different in important ways: there is no continuous community with direct legal authority over New Kingdom burials. But modern Egyptians have a strong cultural connection to their ancient history, and the people who were mummified deserve to be thought of as people, not just as interesting specimens. Students should see that the right answer requires ongoing, case-by-case ethical judgement.

What this object teaches

A canopic jar is one of a set of four funerary vessels used in ancient Egypt to store the organs removed during mummification. The four jars held the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines. The heart was not removed because the Egyptians believed the gods would weigh it after death. Each jar had a lid shaped as one of the Four Sons of Horus: Imsety (human, liver), Hapy (baboon, lungs), Duamutef (jackal, stomach), and Qebehsenuef (falcon, intestines). Canopic jars were used from about 2686 BCE to about 30 BCE. They changed in design over time, from plain stone to elaborate alabaster or decorated pottery. Thousands survive in museums worldwide, mostly removed from Egypt in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Egypt has sought the return of some objects. Canopic jars sometimes still contain the preserved organs of ancient Egyptians, making them both art objects and human remains. Modern science uses CT scans and DNA analysis to study them. The ethical questions around their display and study are real and ongoing.

Period	Canopic jar style	What changed
Old Kingdom (about 2686-2181 BCE)	Plain stone jars with simple round lids	The practice of removing organs for separate storage begins
First Intermediate Period (about 2181-2055 BCE)	Human-headed lids appear	Lids begin to represent the dead person or protective deities
New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 BCE)	Animal-headed lids: baboon, jackal, falcon, human	Lids now clearly represent the Four Sons of Horus; finest sets in alabaster
Third Intermediate Period (about 1070-664 BCE)	Sometimes empty jars, or small dummy jars	Improved embalming meant organs could stay in the body; jars remained as tradition
Late Period and Ptolemaic (about 664-30 BCE)	Practice gradually ends	Canopic jars fall out of use as burial practices change under Greek and later Roman influence
18th-21st centuries CE	Removed to European and American museums	The debate about ownership, repatriation, and ethical display begins

Key words

Mummification

The process used in ancient Egypt to preserve a body after death. It involved removing certain organs, drying the body with natron salt, applying oils and resins, and wrapping the body in linen. The process could take up to 70 days.

Example: Not all ancient Egyptians were mummified. The process was expensive and was primarily used for the wealthy and powerful. Simpler forms of preservation were used for people with fewer resources.

Four Sons of Horus

Four minor gods in ancient Egyptian religion who were believed to protect the organs stored in canopic jars. Imsety (human head) protected the liver. Hapy (baboon head) protected the lungs. Duamutef (jackal head) protected the stomach. Qebehsenuef (falcon head) protected the intestines.

Example: Each Son of Horus was also connected to a compass direction and protected by a mother goddess: Imsety by Isis, Hapy by Nephthys, Duamutef by Neith, and Qebehsenuef by Selqet.

Natron

A naturally occurring salt found in dry lake beds in Egypt. It was used to dry out organs and bodies during mummification. It absorbs moisture and prevents decay.

Example: Natron was found in large quantities in the Wadi El Natrun area of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians understood its preserving properties long before modern science confirmed them.

Valley of the Kings

A valley near Luxor in southern Egypt where many pharaohs and senior officials of the New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 BCE) were buried. Over 60 tombs have been found there, including the tomb of Tutankhamun, discovered in 1922.

Example: Tomb KV55, the source of the canopic jars in the lesson image, is in the Valley of the Kings. Its occupant has not been definitively identified but may be a royal figure from the Amarna period.

Repatriation

The return of objects, human remains, or cultural heritage to the place or community of origin. Many countries and communities are seeking the return of objects removed during the colonial era.

Example: Egypt has formally requested the return of many objects held in European and American museums, including some canopic jars. Some institutions have returned objects; others have not. The debate continues.

Alabaster

A fine-grained, translucent white stone used for luxury objects in ancient Egypt, including high-quality canopic jars. Alabaster is soft enough to carve into detailed shapes and polishes to a smooth, slightly glowing finish.

Example: Tutankhamun's canopic jars were made from alabaster and are considered among the finest examples ever found. The lids show his face rather than the standard Four Sons of Horus.

Use this in other subjects

Science: Discuss how the ancient Egyptians developed a practical understanding of organ decay and preservation, even without modern science. Connect to the modern science of embalming and the use of natron salt. Discuss how modern CT scans and DNA analysis can reveal information from 3,000-year-old organic remains.
History: Build a class timeline of ancient Egyptian history from the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period, showing how canopic jar design changed across dynasties. Connect to the wider history of European colonial collection of Egyptian objects in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Art: Look at images of canopic jars from different periods: plain Old Kingdom stone jars, New Kingdom alabaster jars with animal heads, and painted pottery examples. Discuss how the style changed and what each style communicated about the beliefs of its time.
Ethics: Hold a class discussion on the question: should ancient human remains be displayed in museums? Students should consider who the person was, what their beliefs were about their remains, what their cultural descendants want today, and whether age changes our ethical obligations.
Religion: Discuss the ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife: the weighing of the heart, the Hall of Two Truths, the role of gods like Anubis and Osiris. Compare with beliefs about the afterlife in other traditions students may know, without ranking or judging any tradition.
Language: The word 'canopic' comes from a misidentification by early European scholars. The correct Egyptian name was closer to 'visceral jars' (jars for the internal organs). Discuss how names given by outsiders sometimes stick even when they are wrong. Other examples: 'Eskimo' (now largely replaced by 'Inuit') and 'Indian' used for Indigenous Americans.

Common misconceptions

Wrong

Canopic jars are empty containers used as decoration.

Right

Canopic jars were functional funerary vessels used to store the actual preserved organs of the dead. Many surviving canopic jars still contain the preserved organs of ancient Egyptians, making them human remains as well as historical objects.

Why

Museum display can make objects look merely decorative. Students need to understand what was actually inside them.

Wrong

The brain was stored in a canopic jar.

Right

The ancient Egyptians did not consider the brain important. During mummification, the brain was removed and discarded, usually extracted through the nose. The four organs stored in canopic jars were the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines. The heart was left in the body.

Why

This is a very common misconception. The heart-and-brain distinction is important for understanding Egyptian beliefs about the soul and judgment after death.

Wrong

All ancient Egyptians were mummified with canopic jars.

Right

Full mummification with a proper set of canopic jars was expensive and mostly limited to wealthy and powerful people. Ordinary Egyptians were buried more simply. The objects that survive in museums disproportionately represent the wealthy dead.

Why

Museum collections can create the impression that wealthy burial practices were universal. This hides the lives of most ancient Egyptians.

Wrong

It is obvious that canopic jars belong to Egypt and should be returned.

Right

The question of who owns ancient objects is genuinely complex. The objects were made in Egypt by Egyptians for Egyptians, which is a strong claim. But museums have preserved, studied, and shared these objects for 200 years. The right path is probably careful negotiation, not a simple rule.

Why

Presenting this as obvious in either direction prevents students from thinking carefully about a genuinely hard ethical and legal question.

Teaching this with care

The canopic jars often contain actual human remains: preserved organs of people who died thousands of years ago. Treat this with the same respect you would use for any human remains, regardless of age. Do not describe the organs or mummification process in graphic detail, especially with younger students. The lesson touches on death and the afterlife, which may be sensitive for students who have recently lost family members. Be attentive to this without singling anyone out. Treat ancient Egyptian religion with respect. It was a rich, sophisticated belief system practised for thousands of years. Do not present it as superstition or as simply wrong. Use phrases like 'Egyptians believed' rather than 'Egyptians thought that'. The repatriation debate is real and ongoing. Present it honestly, with arguments on both sides, without taking a simple position. Strong recent work by Egyptian scholars and institutions makes the case for return; strong arguments from museum professionals make the case for keeping. Be careful about the word 'mummy'. Popular culture has made it seem comic or frightening. Help students move past that to see mummies and canopic jars as real human remains from real people with real beliefs. Pronounce the names: Imsety ('IM-se-tee'), Hapy ('HAH-pee'), Duamutef ('doo-AH-moo-tef'), Qebehsenuef ('keh-BEH-seh-noo-ef'). Tell students these are transliterations and that scholars debate the exact ancient pronunciation. End the lesson on the present: the ethical questions around these objects are being debated now, by real scholars, museum directors, and Egyptian officials. The story is not finished.

Check what students have understood

Answer each question in one or two sentences. Use what you have learned about the canopic jar.

What was a canopic jar used for?

A canopic jar was used to store one of the organs removed from a body during ancient Egyptian mummification. The four organs stored were the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines. Each jar had a lid shaped as one of the Four Sons of Horus.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that mentions the storage of organs during mummification and identifies at least one organ.
Why was the heart not placed in a canopic jar?

The ancient Egyptians believed the heart was the seat of the soul and intelligence. After death, the gods would weigh the heart against a feather to judge whether the person had lived justly. The heart had to stay in the body for this judgment.

Marking note: Strong answers mention both the judgment after death and the heart as the seat of the soul. Either alone is worth partial marks.
How did the design of canopic jars change over time? Give one example.

Canopic jars changed significantly over about 2,700 years of use. For example, early Old Kingdom jars had plain round lids, while New Kingdom jars had lids shaped as the animal heads of the Four Sons of Horus: baboon, jackal, falcon, and human.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that identifies a specific change with approximate time periods.
What is the debate about canopic jars and repatriation?

Many canopic jars were removed from Egypt in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and are now in museums in Europe and America. Egypt has argued for the return of some objects, saying they were taken without consent by colonial powers. Some museums have returned objects; others say they are better preserved and more accessible where they are.

Marking note: Award full marks for any answer that mentions both the removal from Egypt and the current debate, with any accurate representation of the two sides.
Why do canopic jars raise ethical questions about museum display?

Canopic jars often still contain the preserved organs of ancient Egyptians, making them human remains as well as historical objects. The people inside were placed in tombs according to religious beliefs about the afterlife. Displaying or studying them raises questions about respect for the dead and for religious beliefs, even ancient ones.

Marking note: Strong answers mention both the human remains aspect and the religious beliefs involved. Either alone is worth partial marks.

Discuss together

These questions have no single right answer. Talk in pairs or small groups, then share your ideas with the class.

Ancient canopic jars contain the actual preserved organs of people who died 3,000 years ago. Should museums be allowed to display them? Should scientists be allowed to study them?

Push students to think past their first reaction. Arguments for display and study: we learn enormous amounts about ancient history, diet, disease, and culture; the alternative is leaving them in storage where no one benefits; age does not remove historical value. Arguments against: these are human remains from people with specific religious beliefs about their burial; the people did not consent to being studied or displayed; even 3,000 years is not long enough to erase ethical obligation. Strong answers will not land simply on one side. The best responses will see that age matters but does not resolve the question, that the specific religious beliefs of the people involved are relevant, and that decisions should involve Egyptian institutions and communities. End by noting that many museums now have ethical review processes for displaying human remains and that this is an ongoing field of debate.
The ancient Egyptians believed in a very detailed afterlife with specific gods, judgments, and requirements. How should we teach ancient religious beliefs that are no longer widely practised?

This is a question about respect and historical understanding. Push students to think about the difference between teaching a belief and agreeing with it. The Egyptians believed what they believed for very thoughtful reasons, and their beliefs shaped a remarkable civilisation that produced extraordinary art and architecture. We can teach those beliefs without either mocking them or pretending to agree with them. The same approach applies to all historical religious beliefs. Good history teaching creates understanding from the inside: it asks students to see the world as people at the time saw it. End by asking: are there beliefs widely held today that future generations might find strange? What does that suggest about how we should judge past beliefs?
If you were running a major museum and Egypt asked you to return a set of canopic jars, what would you do? What factors would matter most to you?

This is a practical ethics question. Push students to consider multiple factors: how the objects were originally acquired, whether they still contain human remains, the museum's ability to care for them, the Egyptian museum's ability to care for them, the importance of the objects to Egyptian cultural heritage, and the benefit to international audiences. Strong answers will not simply say 'return everything' or 'keep everything' but will see that the right answer depends on specific circumstances. End by noting that this is exactly the question that real museum directors face, and that international guidelines are still being developed.

Teaching sequence

THE HOOK (5 min)

Without saying anything about the lesson, ask: 'If you believed your organs would need to come with you after death, how would you store them?' Take guesses. Then say: 'The ancient Egyptians solved this problem 4,000 years ago. They used four jars with animal-headed lids. We are going to find out why, and also ask who owns those jars today.'
INTRODUCE THE OBJECT (10 min)

Describe the canopic jar: a funerary vessel used in ancient Egypt for about 2,700 years. Show the image of the four KV55 jars. Name the Four Sons of Horus. Describe what each jar held. Explain the heart. Pause and ask: 'Why do you think the Egyptians left the heart in the body?' The answer should lead into the belief about judgment after death.
THE BELIEF SYSTEM (15 min)

Explain the ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife: the Hall of Two Truths, the weighing of the heart, the role of Anubis, and the need for the body and its organs to be whole. Draw a simple diagram on the board showing the mummy in the tomb surrounded by the four canopic jars. Discuss: how did the physical arrangement of the burial reflect the religious belief? End by asking: 'How do objects in a burial reveal what people believe?'
THE MUSEUM QUESTION (10 min)

Explain that most canopic jars in major museums were removed from Egypt in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ask: 'Who owns these objects now?' Take positions from the class. Present both sides of the repatriation debate briefly. Ask: 'Does the fact that many jars contain actual preserved organs change anything?' This is a harder question. Do not resolve it — let it sit as a genuine open question.
CLOSING (5 min)

Ask: 'What does a set of four jars tell us about a whole civilisation?' Take honest answers. End by saying: 'The canopic jar is one of history's most carefully designed objects. Four jars, one for each organ, each protected by a god, designed to keep a person whole for a journey after death. Thousands of these jars survive, most made for people whose names we do not know. Each one was made for a specific person, by specific hands, for a specific religious purpose. That is worth remembering — and worth treating with care.'

Classroom materials

Design a Funerary Set

Instructions: Ask students to imagine they are designing a funerary set for their own culture, today. They should think about: (1) what they believe happens after death (or what they have heard); (2) what objects from daily life should go in the burial; (3) what container or vessel would hold any important parts of the person; (4) what symbol or guardian figure would appear on each container. Students draw and label their design. Share and discuss: what do different designs tell us about different beliefs?

Example: In one class, students designed everything from simple garden boxes to elaborate digital archives. One student designed a set of four jars containing a phone, a book, a cooking ingredient, and a piece of music, each protected by a different animal that had meaning for their family. The teacher said: 'You have just done what every culture does when it faces death: you decided what matters enough to take along. The Egyptians chose the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines because their religion told them those organs were essential. You made different choices because your beliefs are different. That difference is exactly what history is made of.'

The Museum Debate

Instructions: Divide the class into two groups. Group A represents Egyptian museum professionals arguing for the return of canopic jars from a major European museum. Group B represents the European museum arguing for keeping them. Each group prepares three arguments. Run a five-minute structured debate. After the debate, ask students to step out of their roles and share their honest personal views. Discuss: did preparing arguments you might not personally hold help you understand the other side?

Example: In one class, students were surprised by how convincing both sides were. The student arguing for return said: 'These people were buried to stay in Egypt. Their gods were Egyptian gods. They belong in Egypt.' The student arguing for keeping said: 'This museum has preserved these jars for 200 years and shown them to millions of people. We have done something real with them.' The teacher said: 'You have both just made the arguments that real museum directors and Egyptian cultural ministers make to each other. There is no simple answer. What matters is that both sides are heard, and that decisions are made with respect for everyone involved.'

Read the Jar

Instructions: Explain to students that inscriptions on canopic jars typically include: the name of the god who protects this jar, a protective spell, and the name of the dead person. Ask students to write their own protective inscription for an imaginary jar. It should include: the name of a protective figure (from any tradition or invented), a short protective statement, and the name of the person being protected. Share and discuss: why might words on an object make it more powerful in a religious context?

Example: In one class, students wrote inscriptions ranging from very traditional (using Egyptian god names they had learned) to entirely personal (using names of family members as protective figures). One student wrote: 'Protected by my grandmother, who kept everything safe. May nothing harm what is placed here.' The teacher said: 'You have just understood something important about what inscriptions on funerary objects do. They personalise the protection. They connect the dead person to a specific protective force. They make the object speak. The ancient Egyptians did exactly this, and the inscriptions on surviving canopic jars are one of the ways we know whose tombs we have found.'

Where to go next

Try a lesson on the Benin Bronzes for another major case study in the debate about colonial-era removal of cultural heritage and the question of repatriation.
Try a lesson on the Rosetta Stone for another Egyptian object now in a European museum at the centre of a repatriation debate.
Try a lesson on the Terracotta Army for another case where beliefs about the afterlife produced extraordinary burial objects.
Connect this lesson to science class with a project on how modern medical imaging technology is used to study ancient remains without disturbing them.
Connect this lesson to ethics class with a longer discussion of what obligations we have to the dead, regardless of when they lived.
Connect this lesson to history class with a broader project on ancient Egyptian religion, the Book of the Dead, and the elaborate system of beliefs that governed life and death in ancient Egypt.

Key takeaways

A canopic jar is one of four funerary vessels used in ancient Egypt to hold the organs removed during mummification. Each jar held one organ and had a lid shaped as one of the Four Sons of Horus: Imsety (human, liver), Hapy (baboon, lungs), Duamutef (jackal, stomach), Qebehsenuef (falcon, intestines).
The heart was left in the body because ancient Egyptians believed it would be weighed by the gods after death to judge whether the person had lived justly.
Canopic jars were used in ancient Egypt for about 2,700 years, from the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period. Their design changed significantly over this time, reflecting changes in religious beliefs and practices.
Most canopic jars in major museums outside Egypt were removed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Egypt has sought the return of some objects. The debate about repatriation is real and ongoing.
Many canopic jars still contain the preserved organs of ancient Egyptians, making them both historical objects and human remains. This raises ethical questions about display and scientific study.
The canopic jar system reflects a sophisticated ancient belief about the body, the soul, the afterlife, and the relationship between humans and gods. It deserves to be taught with the same respect given to any living religious tradition.

Sources

The Ancient Egyptians: Their History, Culture, and Influence on Western Civilisation — Salima Ikram (2010) [academic]
Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt — Salima Ikram and Aidan Dodson (1998) [academic]
Canopic Equipment: Beauty and Revelations from Ancient Egypt — American Research Center in Egypt (2023) [institution]
The British Museum: Canopic Jars Collection Guide — British Museum (2024) [institution]
Egypt Repatriation Claims: A Summary of Recent Developments — UNESCO (2023) [institution]

Choose your language

The Canopic Jar: Four Jars for One Journey

Questions for you

Common student difficulties — tick any you have noticed