When students write essays, they often need to report what another writer has said. At basic level, they use 'says' for everything: 'The writer says that…'. At higher levels, they need a wider choice: argue, claim, assert, maintain, contend, insist. These verbs are not the same. Each one shows a different attitude towards the idea being reported. 'The writer argues…' is neutral — it just reports the view. 'The writer claims…' suggests the writer is not sure the view is true. 'The writer asserts…' means the view is stated strongly. 'The writer maintains…' means the view is held against opposition. Each choice changes how the reader sees both the writer and the student who is reporting them. This lesson is about the most useful set of reporting verbs for essay writing and how to teach students to choose among them carefully.
Before you start — think honestly about your own teaching and experience.
Look at the examples. Answer each question before reading the explanation — this is how your students will learn too.
Six sentences report the same idea, but they send six different signals to the reader. What is the difference? What does the reader think about the author — and about the student writer — in each case?
The content of the idea is the same in every sentence, but the reporting verb adds a layer of meaning about how the author holds the view and how the student writer sees it. 'Argues' is the neutral default — the student is just reporting what the author says, without suggesting any opinion. 'Claims' is the most dangerous — it signals that the student does not believe the author, or at least thinks the author may be wrong. If a student writes 'the expert claims…' they are quietly disagreeing. 'Asserts' means the author stated the view with confidence. 'Maintains' and 'contends' both suggest the author is holding the view against others who disagree. 'Insists' is the strongest — it suggests the author will not be moved. Choice of reporting verb is a choice about how to position the reported view.
Sentence 1: 'Climate scientists argue that global temperatures are rising.'
Sentence 2: 'Climate scientists claim that global temperatures are rising.'
What is the difference? Which sentence should the student choose? Why does the wrong choice matter?
Sentence 1 ('argue') is neutral and appropriate — it simply reports what climate scientists say. Sentence 2 ('claim') suggests that the student does not trust climate scientists, or thinks they might be wrong. For a well-established scientific view, 'claim' is the wrong verb — it quietly undermines the source. 'Claim' is appropriate when the student wants to signal doubt: 'A small group of researchers claims that the earth is flat' ✓ — here 'claim' correctly signals that the view is not well supported. Teaching students to notice this signal is essential for academic writing. A student who uses 'claim' for every reported view sounds sceptical of everything — and a student who uses 'argue' for obvious nonsense sounds too accepting. Both signal poor judgement to the reader.
'Smith (2015) argues that poverty causes poor educational outcomes.'
'Jones (2017) contends that poor educational outcomes cause poverty.'
'Brown (2019) maintains that both are part of a single cycle.'
Each reporting verb fits a different position in the debate. What does each verb suggest about the writer's role in the disagreement?
In academic writing, reporting verbs often signal how a writer relates to other writers in a debate. 'Argues' is the neutral presentation of a view. 'Contends' suggests the writer is disagreeing with others — Jones is taking a side against Smith. 'Maintains' suggests the writer is defending a view over time, often against critics. Brown 'maintains' that both are part of a cycle — the verb suggests Brown is standing by this view against the simpler one-direction arguments. A skilled student writer uses these verbs to map out a debate: who is arguing, who is contending against whom, who is maintaining a position. The verbs organise the reader's understanding of the field. Students who use only 'says' or 'argues' lose this power to structure their essays.
| Verb | Signal | When to use | Risk of wrong use |
|---|---|---|---|
| argue | Neutral report of a view | The safe default for reporting any view you are presenting fairly | None — this is the safe choice if unsure |
| claim | Signals doubt — the view may not be true | Only when you want to suggest the view is not well supported | Using it for trusted sources sounds dismissive of them |
| assert | Strong, confident statement | When the source stated the view firmly and without hedging | Overusing 'assert' makes every writer sound aggressive |
| maintain | Holds the view against opposition | When the source is defending a position that others have challenged | Suggests debate where there may be none |
| contend | Takes a position in a disagreement | When the source is actively arguing against another view | Implies more conflict than may exist in the source |
| insist | Refuses to change the view | When the source keeps stating a view despite pushback | Suggests stubbornness; can sound negative about the source |
| hold | Continues to believe | When describing a long-held view: 'Many economists hold that…' | Formal; best with 'that'-clauses, not single ideas |
| state | Simply says — factual | For direct presentation of a fact or position with no extra signal | Can sound flat for complex ideas |
DISTINCTION 1 — 'Argue' is the safe neutral default: When in doubt, choose 'argue'. It simply reports the view without adding any signal about truth or disagreement. A student essay that uses 'argue' consistently for its reported views will never be wrong — it may be slightly repetitive, but it will not send unintended signals. For B1 students starting academic writing, 'argue' is the foundation.
DISTINCTION 2 — 'Claim' is the dangerous one: 'Claim' suggests that the view may not be true — that the source is making an unverified assertion. This is the verb most often misused by B2+ students. They use it as if it meant 'argues' or 'says', but it actually quietly suggests disagreement. Rule for students: only use 'claim' if you want the reader to question the view. 'The researcher claims that his new method works' — the reader now wonders if the method really does.
DISTINCTION 3 — 'Maintain' and 'contend' both involve opposition: Both verbs signal that the reported view is part of a debate. 'Maintain' focuses on the source defending a view over time. 'Contend' focuses on the source actively taking a side in a disagreement. Both are useful for showing students that academic writing is not just a list of views — it is a conversation between writers. Using these verbs gives essays a sense of structure and debate.
DISTINCTION 4 — 'Insist' has emotional weight: 'Insist' goes beyond confident statement into refusing to change. 'The minister insists that the policy will work' carries a slight criticism — the writer suggests the minister will not accept that others disagree. In academic writing, 'insists' can sound judgemental. Use it carefully, only when you really mean that the source is refusing to engage with opposition.
DISTINCTION 5 — Variety is a skill, not just a decoration: In a long essay reporting many sources, using 'argues' ten times looks repetitive. But mixing in 'maintains', 'contends', 'asserts' without thought can send wrong signals. The goal is not just variety — it is to choose the verb that best describes how the source actually holds the view. Teach students to notice what each source is doing: stating a fact? defending a position? attacking another view? The answer tells them which verb to use.
Academic reporting verbs are B2 and C1 territory in the official English language frameworks. However, students who are preparing for university — whether in their own country or abroad — need these verbs earlier, because they appear in essay rubrics and reading texts from B1 upwards. Teachers in contexts where students are heading into higher education benefit from introducing these verbs gradually: start with 'argue' and 'state' at B1, add 'claim' and 'assert' at B2, and introduce 'maintain', 'contend', and 'insist' as students approach C1 academic writing. The teaching sequence is as important as the word list.
When marking student essays, circle every reporting verb and ask the student to justify the choice. 'Why "claims" here rather than "argues"? Do you mean to suggest the source is wrong?' This turns marking into teaching. Students learn to defend their verb choices, which forces them to understand the signals each verb sends.
Choose the most appropriate reporting verb for each academic context. Consider how the source holds the view and what signal you want to send to the reader.
Each sentence uses a reporting verb that sends the wrong signal for the context. Identify the problem, suggest a better verb, and explain why.
Use this sequence directly in class — guided discovery, no textbook needed. Tap each step to mark it done.
STEP 1 — Six verbs, one idea (6 min): Write on the board: 'The author ________ that education reduces poverty.' Fill the gap with six verbs in turn — argues, claims, asserts, maintains, contends, insists. After each, ask students: how does this sound? What does the reader now think of the author? Establish that the verb choice changes the meaning.
STEP 2 — The 'claim' danger (7 min): Focus on 'claim'. Write two versions of a sentence: 'Scientists argue that vaccines save lives' and 'Scientists claim that vaccines save lives'. Discuss: which is neutral? Which sounds suspicious? Teach the rule: 'claim' signals doubt. Only use it when you want the reader to question the view. Practice with examples where 'claim' is right (weak source) and where it is wrong (strong source).
STEP 3 — Reporting verbs for debate (7 min): Introduce 'maintain' and 'contend' as debate verbs. Show how a student writing about an academic disagreement can use these to position the different views. Practise: 'While Smith argues X, Jones contends Y, and Brown maintains Z'. This structure gives essays shape. Students write three sentences about a debate they have read about or could imagine.
STEP 4 — Match the verb to the source (7 min): Give students six short descriptions of sources: a well-established scientific body, a single researcher with a controversial view, a politician defending a failing policy, a historian presenting evidence, two academics disagreeing, an expert with a long-held position. Students choose the best reporting verb for each and explain. Discuss choices as a class.
STEP 5 — Rewrite a flat paragraph (8 min): Give students a paragraph that uses 'says' for every reported view. Students rewrite it using a variety of reporting verbs, choosing each one to fit how the source holds the view. Compare versions and discuss which choices best capture the structure of the debate being reported.
Use directly in class — copy, adapt, or read aloud. No printing needed.
For each strategy, choose the option that best describes where you are now.
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