Cohesion is what makes a text feel like a text rather than a list of unconnected sentences. It is the invisible thread that runs through a paragraph, tying sentences to each other and to what came before. Students who know correct grammar at the sentence level often produce writing that still feels choppy and disconnected — because they have not yet learned how to stitch those sentences together. The good news is that cohesion is not mysterious: it is achieved through a small set of grammatical and vocabulary tools that can be taught directly. This lesson looks at four of them — reference (using pronouns and demonstratives to point back or forward), substitution (replacing a word or phrase with a shorter stand-in), ellipsis (leaving out words that are already understood), and lexical cohesion (repeating, synonymising, or grouping related words). These tools are already present in the grammar students know — this lesson shows them how to use them purposefully.
Before you start — think honestly about your own teaching and experience.
Look at the examples. Answer each question before reading the explanation — this is how your students will learn too.
Paragraph B:
The head teacher arrived early and went straight to her office, where she read the reports. They worried her. She called a meeting.
Both paragraphs contain exactly the same information. Which is easier to read? Which feels more like a paragraph and less like a list? What specific changes did Paragraph B make to Paragraph A?
Paragraph B uses three cohesive tools. First, it replaces repeated 'the head teacher' with 'she' — this is reference: using a pronoun to point back to something already identified. Second, 'They worried her' uses 'They' to refer back to 'the reports' — again reference, but to a plural noun from the previous clause. Third, the sentence 'She called a meeting' uses ellipsis implicitly — we understand she called it because of the reports, without needing to say so. Repeating a full noun phrase every time a participant is mentioned is one of the clearest signs of immature writing. Learning to use pronouns and demonstratives purposefully is the single biggest improvement most students can make to their writing.
A: 'Are you coming to the meeting?'
B: 'I hope so.' (not 'I hope I am coming to the meeting.')
A: 'Can someone help with the marking?'
B: 'I will.' (not 'I will help with the marking.')
In each exchange, the second speaker does not repeat what the first said. What does 'did' replace in the first exchange? What does 'so' replace in the second? What is left out in the third?
In 'Yes, she did', the auxiliary 'did' substitutes for the whole verb phrase 'finished the report' — this is substitution. In 'I hope so', 'so' substitutes for the entire clause 'I am coming to the meeting' — a whole-clause substitution. In 'I will', everything after the auxiliary is left out entirely because it is understood from context — this is ellipsis. The difference: substitution replaces something with a stand-in word ('do', 'so', 'not'); ellipsis simply omits the repeated material. Both make language more economical and more natural. Students who always repeat the full form sound unnatural and wordy — 'Yes, I will help with the marking' is grammatically fine but sounds odd after a direct question.
Look at the word 'these difficulties' in the last sentence. What does it refer to? Is it a pronoun? Now look at the words 'issue', 'problems', 'difficulties'. How are they related? And 'pump', 'water' — what connects them?
'These difficulties' uses a demonstrative ('these') plus a summary noun ('difficulties') to refer back to the entire preceding description — the water problem, the building, the roofs, the furniture. This is a powerful cohesive technique: instead of using a pronoun ('they' would be ambiguous here), a demonstrative + summary noun captures and labels everything that came before. This is called a 'summary noun' or 'encapsulating noun'. The words 'problems', 'issue', and 'difficulties' are also cohesive — they are near-synonyms that allow the writer to refer to the same general concept without repeating the same word. And 'pump' and 'water' are connected by topic: both belong to the semantic field of the water supply problem. This is lexical cohesion — the network of related words that gives a text its thematic unity.
| Form | Use / Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Device | What it does | Example |
| Personal reference | Pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase | The teacher arrived. She looked tired. |
| Demonstrative reference | This/that/these/those + noun points back (or forward) | Several problems were identified. These issues required urgent action. |
| Comparative reference | 'Such', 'other', 'the same' signal a link to something earlier | The results were poor. Such outcomes were unexpected. |
| Substitution (verb) | 'Do/does/did' replaces a verb phrase | 'Has she finished?' 'Yes, she has.' |
| Substitution (clause) | 'So' or 'not' replaces a whole clause | 'Will it rain?' 'I think so.' / 'I hope not.' |
| Ellipsis | Words are omitted because they are understood | 'Can you help?' 'I will [help].' |
| Lexical repetition | Key word repeated to maintain topic thread | The results were poor. The results reflected a difficult term. |
| Synonym / near-synonym | Related word avoids repetition while keeping the thread | The problems were serious. These difficulties had persisted for months. |
| Superordinate / summary noun | A broader word captures several specific things | The leaking roof, the broken pump, the missing chairs — these problems were reported. |
The demonstrative + summary noun technique ('these problems', 'this situation', 'such difficulties', 'these findings') is worth particular attention because it does two things at once: it coheres (it points back to what came before) and it organises (it labels and contains a complex idea in a single noun phrase, allowing the writer to move forward). This technique is a hallmark of competent formal writing — it appears constantly in reports, academic texts, and professional letters. Teaching students to use it transforms their ability to write connected paragraphs. The technique has three steps: (1) write the complex information, (2) use 'these/this/such' + a carefully chosen noun to capture it, (3) make that noun phrase the subject of the next sentence, which then moves the argument forward. Students who learn this technique can manage longer paragraphs and more complex arguments without losing the thread.
When checking a student's paragraph for cohesion: • Does every sentence start with the same full noun phrase? → Introduce pronoun reference • Is a pronoun used where two or more people could be the referent? → Ambiguous reference — repeat the noun or restructure • Does 'this' or 'that' appear without a following noun? → Add a summary noun: 'this situation', 'these problems' • Are the same words repeated throughout without any synonyms or summary nouns? → Introduce lexical variety • Does the text feel choppy — each sentence starting fresh without linking to the last? → Check whether a cohesive device could connect them: pronoun, demonstrative, synonym, or shared topic word
Each item asks you to improve the cohesion of a short passage. Rewrite or complete as directed.
Each passage has one cohesion problem. Identify it, name the type of error, and rewrite the relevant sentence(s).
Use this sequence directly in class — guided discovery, no textbook needed. Tap each step to mark it done.
STEP 1 — Choppy vs flowing: the contrast (6 min): Write Paragraph A from the discovery sequence on the board (all 'the head teacher'). Read it aloud. Ask students: how does this sound? Then write or read Paragraph B. Ask: what changed? Elicit the specific devices used. Establish the term 'cohesion' — the quality of texts that hold together — and tell students this lesson is about how to create it deliberately.
STEP 2 — Four tools, four examples (8 min): Introduce the four cohesive devices one at a time using school-context examples: (1) reference/pronouns, (2) demonstrative + summary noun, (3) substitution/ellipsis, (4) lexical cohesion. For each, write a choppy version and an improved version. Ask students to identify which tool was used.
STEP 3 — The summary noun technique (7 min): This is the lesson's most powerful practical skill. Write a complex sentence or two on the board describing a school situation. Ask students: what single noun could you use to label all of this? Elicit options. Write the demonstration: 'The water was unsafe, the classrooms were crowded, and the teachers were demoralised. These conditions...' Ask students to complete the sentence and push the argument forward. Repeat with two more examples.
STEP 4 — Cohesion clinic (9 min): Give students a short choppy paragraph (5–6 sentences, all starting with the same noun, with vague 'this' references and no synonyms). Students work in pairs to rewrite it, using at least three different cohesive devices. Share rewrites and compare — which changes made the biggest difference?
STEP 5 — Apply to own writing (5 min): Ask each student to take a paragraph from a recent piece of their own writing (or write five new sentences on a school topic). They apply the cohesion checklist: any repeated nouns that could be pronouns? Any vague 'this'? Any summary noun opportunities? Any synonym options? One improvement is shared with the class.
Use directly in class — copy, adapt, or read aloud. No printing needed.
For each strategy, choose the option that best describes where you are now.
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